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Complete  Guide 

of  Architect's  Office 


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Detailing  —  Lettering 
Rendering-  Designing'  I 

Classic  Orders  of  Architecture  r 


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Radford's 

Architectural  Drawing 

Complete  Guide  to  Work   o£  Architect's  Office 

Drawing  to  Scale — Tracing — Detailing — 

Lettering — Rendering — Designing — 

Classic  Orders  of  Architecture 

A  COMPLETE  AND  THOEOUGH  COUESE,  CLEAELY  WEITTEN 

AND  BEAUTIFULLY  ILLUSTBATED;  SUITED  ALIKE 

TO  INDIVIDUAL   STUDY   AND   CLASS 

INSTEUCTION 


Prepared  under  the  Supervision  of 

WILLIAM  A.  RADPORD 

President  of  the  Radford  Architectural  Company,  Editor-in-Chief  of  "Rad- 
ford's Cyclopedia  of  Construction,"  "American  Carpenter  and  Build- 
er,"  "Radford's  Details  of  Building  Construction,"  etc. 


Assisted  by 

LOEING  H.  PEOVINE,  B.  S. 

Instructor    in    Architectural    Engineering,    Department   of    Architecture, 
University  of  Illinois 

and 

ALFEED   S.  JOHNSON,   A.M.,  Ph.D. 
Editor  in  Charge  Cyclopedia  Department  Radford  Architectural  Company 


A  Companion  Volume  to 
BRADFORD'S  MECHANICAL  DRAWING" 


THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  COMPANY 

Chicago,  111. 


COPYRIGHT,  1912 

BY 
THE   EADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  COMPANY 


IV/V 


Preface 


C«UFOft*iA 


All  that  stands  between  thousands  of  practical 


and  builders  in  this  country  and  a  greater  success  is  the 
lack  of  facility  in  architectural  drafting.  Ambitious  men, 
both  young  and  old,  are  turning  to  architecture  —  the  draw- 
ing of  plans  —  as  their  big  opportunity  for  advancement. 

"Radford's  Architectural  Drafting"  has  been  specially 
written  and  illustrated  to  help  these  men  to  reach  this  goal. 
It  is  practical,  clear,  direct.  It  goes  straight  to  the  point, 
telling  the  learner  what  he  wants  and  needs  to  know  with- 
out fuss,  flurry,  or  theoretical  nonsense.  It  is  complete. 
It  is  arranged  in  logical  order  for  satisfactory  individual 
study. 

The  importance  of  neat  drafting  and  lettering  on  plans 
can  not  be  overestimated.  Architects  rate  their  draftsmen 
according  to  the  way  they  do  their  work  ;  and  the  architects 
are  themselves  judged  by  the  way  their  drawings  go  out. 
Careless  drafting  and  amateurish  lettering  have  more  than 
once  lost  for  an  otherwise  good  man  a  desirable  job  or  a 
nice  commission. 

This  book,  together  with  its  companion  volume,  "Rad- 
f  ord  's  Mechanical  Drawing,  '  '  has  been  prepared  to  furnish 
ambitious  men  —  whether  apprentices  or  experienced  build- 
ers, students  in  school  or  young  draftsmen  in  offices  —  a 
practical,  thorough,  and  satisfactory  course  in  draftsman- 
ship, drawing,  sketching,  rendering,  and  designing.  One 
who  is  already  in  the  work  can  well  begin  with  this  Volume 
2,  the  more  advanced  drafting  and  designing  work  as  done 
in  the  best  architects'  offices.  Others  should  start  with 

• 

Volume  1  and  master  the  foundation  principles  of  mechani- 
cal drafting,  the  use  of  the  drafting  instruments,  etc., 
before  proceeding  with  the  architectural  course. 

o 


Table  of  Contents — Volume  I 

MECHANICAL  DRAFTING PAGE  1 

The  Draftsman's  Outfit — Instruments  and  Materials — Testing 
Instruments — Use  of  Instruments — Drawing  to  Scale — Pencil- 
ing and  Inking — Geometrical  Constructions — Approximations — 
Projection  (Orthographic,  Oblique,  Isometric,  etc.) — Planes  of 
Projection — Ground  Line — Quadrants — Plans  and  Elevations — 
Direction  of  Oblique  Lines  ;  Slope — Profile  Plane — Auxiliary 
Planes  of  Projection — Intersection  and  Development — Non- 
Developable  Figures — Intersection  of  Planes — Of  Plane  and 
Curved  Surface — Of  Plane  and  Cylinder— Of  Solids — Visibility 
of  Lines  of  Intersection — Development  of  Prism,  Pyramid, 
etc. — Intersection  of  Cylinder  and  Prism — Of  Curved  Surfaces 
— Approximate  Developments — Problems  in  Drafting  for  Con- 
struction (Finding  Miters,  Developing  Mouldings,  etc.) — Picto- 
rial Drawing — Perspective  Projection — Isometric  Drawing — 
Non-Isometric  Lines — Isometrics  of  Cylinders,  Cones,  etc. — 
Oblique  Projection. 

WORKING  DRAWINGS PAGE  145 

Qualifications  of  the  Draftsman — Detail  Drawings — Assembly 
Drawings — Preliminary  Sketches — Requirements  of  Good  Draw- 
ings— Explanatory  Notes — Conventional  Lines — Shade  Lines — 
Blue-Prints — Tracing — Dimensioning — Extension  Lines — Over- 
All  Dimensions — Finished  Surfaces — Sections — Cross-Hatching 
— Conventional  Representations  of  Materials — Lettering  of 
Drawings — Spacing — Drawings  for  Building  Construction — 
Working  Plans  (Basement,  First  Floor,  etc.) — Structural 
Drafting — Solid  and  Built-Up  Members— Rivets  and  Bolts — 
Reading  Drawings. 

INDEX  PAGE  186A 


Table  of  Contents — Volume  II 

ARCHITECTURAL  DRAFTING         ....    PAGE  187 

General  Requirements — Negotiating  with  Owner — Scale  of 
Drawings — Changes  in  Plans — Preliminary  Sketches — Per- 
spective Sketches — Competition  Drawings — Working  Drawings 
(General  and  Detail) — Scale  and  Full-Sized  Drawings — The 
Plan — Layout  of  Rooms,  etc. — The  Elevation — Use  of  the 
Orders — Characteristics  of  Types  of  Buildings  (Residence, 
Library,  Schoolhouse,  Office  Building,  Warehouse,  etc.)  — 
Colonial  Architecture — General  Composition — Treatment  of 
Elevations — Location  of  Openings — Scale  Details — The  Section 
— Full-Sizing — Reproducing  Drawings  (Blue-Printing,  White- 
Printing,  Hectograph  Process,  etc.) — Tracing  Cloth — Architec- 
tural Forms — Conventional  Symbols  (Drain  and  Sewer  Pipe, 
Lighting,  Heating,  etc.) — Sizes  of  Furniture — Materials  of 
Construction — Shades  and  Shadows — Direction  of  Light — 
Shadows  of  Points,  Lines,  etc. — Details  of  Construction — 
Cornice — Floors — Lath  and  Plaster — Flashing  and  Counter- 
Flashing — Doors — Porches — Fireplaces — Stairs — Windows,  etc. 

SKETCHING;  PEN  AND  INK  RENDERING;  WASH 

DRAWING PAGE  298 

Principles  of  Sketching — Pencils  and  Paper — Method — Laying 
Out  a  Drawing — Rendering  (in  Pencil,  in  Ink,  in  Water-Color) 
— Wash  Drawings. 

ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE;  ARCHITECTURAL 

LETTERING  .        .  ....    PAGE  317 

Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  Orders — 
Entablature,  Column,  Pedestal — Architrave,  Frieze,  Cornice — 
Column  Details — Units  of  Measurement — Classic  Mouldings — 
Forms  and  Proportions  of  Letters — Spacing — Titles  and 
Inscriptions — Types  of  Letters  for  Various  Uses. 

INDEX         .  .    PAGE  343 


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It  would  be  a  commonplace  to  insist  on  the 
advantage  to  all  property  owners  and  to  all 
classes  of  workers  engaged  in  building  construc- 
tion, of  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  archi- 
tectural design.  It  is  equally  important  that 
they  should  know  how  to  read  and  interpret 
intelligently  the  working  drawings  that  are  the 
guides  to  the  details  of  actual  construction,  and, 
if  need  be,  to  make  these  drawings  themselves. 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

The  first  impression  given  by  a  set  of  draw- 
ings applies  as  well  in  Architecture  as  in  any 
other  line  of  work.  So  often  we  hear  it  said, 
"It  certainly  makes  a  good  impression."  Apply- 
ing this  same  principle  to  architecture,  let  us 
consider  a  few  general  requirements  in  order 
to  finish  a  set  of  plans  in  «fhe  best  manner,  and 
also  have  them  appeal  to  a  person  not  familiar 
with  architectural  work. 

The  drawings  should  be  complete  in  every 
respect.  They  should  be  fully  dimensioned 
with  plain  figures;  all  material  plainly  marked 
by  arrows;  each  room  named,  for  the  sake  of 
reference;  and  the  various  parts  of  the  work 

187 


188  ARCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 

carefully  explained  by  explanatory  notes.  Make 
these  notes  clear,  concise,  and  with  no  mistaking 
the  part  to  which  they  refer.  While  the  title 
of  each  page  may  be  lettered  in  a  more  elaborate 
letter,  make  all  explanatory  notes  plainly  let- 
tered. Drawings  in  general  have  but  few  notes 
of  explanation.  Make  it  a  rule  to  explain  fully 
all  the  questionable  portions  of  a  building. 
This  applies  to  the  plans,  as  well  as  the  eleva- 
tions, sections,  and  details.  In  the  arrange- 
ment of  notes,  if  there  are  those  that  do  not 
refer  to  any  particular  portion  of  the  drawing, 
place  these  notes  over  the  sheet,  to  make  it 
well  balanced.  Do  not  try  to  crowd  them  into 
one  corner  of  the  sheet  or  along  one  edge.  Place 
them  where  they  will  make  the  drawing  as  a 
whole  look  the  best. 

Architectural  drawings  should  have  some 
character  to  them;  the  lines  should  be  firm  and 
straight,  making  them  a  full,  even  thickness. 
Very  often  good  drawings  are  spoiled  by  the 
lines  being  very  poor  and  also  too  faint.  Use 
a  good,  heavy  line,  and  make  it  look  as  if  it 
was  there  for  a  purpose. 

One  way  in  which  a  drawing  can  be  made 
attractive  and  "snappy,"  as  you  will  hear  archi- 
tects say,  is  to  overrun  all  corners  and  inter- 
sections of  lines,  slightly.  In  mechanical  draft- 
ing other  than  the  work  of  the  architects,  it  is 
always  required  to  stop  the  lines  at  the  corners, 
making  the  drawing  exact  and  very  mechan- 
ical in  appearance.  The  architect,  however,  is 


ARCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING  189 


Tig.  1.    Part  Plan,  Showing  Method  of  Overrunning  Corners. 


190  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

allowed  some  liberties  in  his  work.  He  will 
resort  to  methods,  to  improve  the  looks  of  his 
drawings,  which  would  not  be  permissible  in 
other  work. 

Referring  to  Fig.  1,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
corners  and  intersections  are  emphasized  by  the 
overrunning  of  the  lines.  This  does  not  mean 
long  lines  past  the  corners,  but  just  enough  to 
show  a  sharp  intersection.  A  little  practice  will 
soon  enable  a  draftsman  to  do  this  work  skil- 
fully, and  once  this  method  is  adopted  it  will 
be  used  on  all  future  work,  as  there  is  no  com- 
parison in  the  general  attractive  appearance  of 
two  drawings,  in  one  of  which  this  method  is 
used,  and  in  the  other  the  strict  mechanical 
method  is  adhered  to.  The  actual  time  con- 
sumed in  getting  out  a  drawing  is  less  with  the 
method  described  than  with  the  true  mechan- 
ical drawing,  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  start 
and  stop  at  exactly  a  certain  point.  In  mechan- 
ical drawing,  it  is  frequently  necessary,  after 
two  lines  at  an  angle  have  been  drawn,  to  go 
over  the  first  line  in  order  to  continue  it  a  short 
distance  to  the  exact  corner. 

Very  often,  a  few  minutes  spent  on  careful 
lettering,  indicating  materials,  and  an  additional 
explanatory  note,  will  be  the  winning  feature 
of  a  set  of  drawings. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  upon 
always  being  on  time,  whether  in  office  work 
or  in  getting  out  drawings.  When  a  time  is 
set  for  the  completion  of  any  drawing,  or  a  time 


ARCHITECTUKAL   DKAFTING  191 

of  meeting  arranged,  have  your  work  ready  at 
that  time,  and  keep  your  appointment  exactly 
as  arranged.  Before  setting  a  time  of  comple- 
tion, be  sure  you  are  giving  yourself  time  to 
do  the  work  completely,  and  then  see  to  it  that 
your  work  is  ready  at  that  time. 

The  architect's  services  usually  consist  in 
preparing  the  necessary  studies  or  preliminary 
sketches,  working  drawings,  specifications,  and 
large-scale  and  full-size  details,  together  with 
a  general  supervision  of  the  work.  For  this 
service,  there  is  usually  a  price  based  upon  a 
minimum  percentage  of  the  completed  work. 
This  percentage  varies  in  different  States  and 
localities,  from  S1/^  to  7  per  cent.  As  the  work 
progresses,  or  different  sets  of  drawings  are 
completed,  payments  are  made.  If  we  consider 
the  architect  receiving  five  per  cent  commission, 
one-fifth  the  entire  fee  is  due  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  the  preliminary  sketches,  two-fifths 
upon  the  completion  of  the  working  drawings 
and  specifications,  the  balance  being  paid  as  the 
work  progresses.  This  percentage  is  based  on 
the  total  cost  of  the  buildings.  These  prices  are 
those  adopted  by  the  Chicago  Architects'  Busi- 
ness Association.  Should  work  on  the  drawings 
be  abandoned,  a  charge  should  be  made  for 
services  for  the  amount  of  work  done. 

This  will  give  an  idea  as  to  the  general 
prices  charged,  and  the  usual  times  of  payment. 
It  does  not  pay  to  do  work  at  a  small  percent- 
age, for  the  work  on  the  drawings  and  specifi- 


192  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

cations  will  necessarily  have  to  be  inferior  and 
incomplete. 

The  scales  at  which  drawings  are  usually 
made  are  %  in.,  %  in.,  y2  in.,  %  in.,  %  in.,  1% 
in.,  and  3  in.,  to  the  foot.  These  are  convenient 
for  all  parties  concerned.  We  see  that  by  using 
the  first  three  scales  we  can  use  the  regular 
divisions  on  a  rule,  without  having  an  architect's 
scale.  The  last  scales  are  also  convenient  for 
the  same  reason.  Take,  for  instance,  a  detail 
drawn  at  3-inch  scale;  then  we  see  that  14  i^h 
equals  one  inch,  and  an  ordinary  rule  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  On  the  actual  construction 
work,  the  foreman  always  uses  his  two-foot  rule 
for  scaling  the  drawings;  and  if  the  above  scales 
are  used,  they  are  easily  read  from  an  ordinary 
rule. 

A  complete  set  of  drawings  should  include  a 
survey,  or  City  Engineer's  plan,  of  the  lot,  on 
which  the  outline  of  the  building  is  marked;  a 
foundation  plan;  a  plan  for  each  floor;  a  roof 
plan;  an  elevation  of  each  side  of  the  house; 
all  necessary  %-inch  scale  detail  sections;  all 
necessary  elevations  of  interior  finish;  large- 
scale  details  of  the  window-frames  and  sash  and 
interior  trim;  and  any  other  details  of  unusual 
construction.  After  the  contract  is  let,  then 
get  out  full-sized  details. 

Should  any  changes  be  necessary  after  the 
drawings  are  completed,  secure  the  owner's 
written  order  for  such  changes.  If  everything 


AKCHITECTUKAL    DEAFTING  193 

is  in  writing,  there  can  be  no  cause  for  dispute, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  changes. 

METHOD  OF  GETTING  OUT  DRAWINGS 

The  prospective  client,  by  appointment  or 
otherwise,  meets  the  architect  in  his  office.  The 
general  scheme  is  talked  over,  and  the  various 
subjects  are  discussed,  such  as  the  lot,  location, 
size,  etc.;  the  amount  to  be  put  into  the  build- 
ing, or  the  cost;  the  time  of  beginning  and 
completion;  the  owner's  general  idea  of  the 
requirements;  and  the  architect's  fee.  A  time 
is  set  for  the  getting-out  of  the  preliminary 
sketches.  All  of  this  information  is  arranged, 
and  entered  in  a  book  for  future  reference. 

At  the  appointed  time,  the  client  appears 
again,  and  the  preliminary  sketches  are  talked 
over,  changed,  and  revised,  and  any  new  infor- 
mation is  noted.  After  another  visit  or  two 
by  the  client,  the  sketches  are  accepted.  The 
working  drawings  are  begun,  usually  made  at 
%-inch  or  14-inch  scale.  These  drawings  are 
carefully  inspected  by  the  head  draftsman,  num- 
bered, dated,  and  signed. 

These  drawings  are  then  reproduced  by  some 
method — usually  blue-printed — bound,  and  sent 
to  the  contractors  for  bids  or  proposals  on  the 
work.  After  the  contract  has  been  let,  the  full- 
sized  drawings  are  made. 


194  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWINGS 

Architectural  drawings  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

-p»    ,.    •  f  Sketches 

J  Perspective  Sketches 
Drawings       [competition  Drawings 

Working 


Drawings 


fScaleDetails 


Detail 


[Full-Size  Details 
Preliminary  Drawings 


Preliminary  drawings  are  small  studies  of 
the  proposed  new  work,  freehand  or  otherwise, 
at  a  small  scale,  finished  in  an  attractive  man- 
ner. There  are  three  classes  of  preliminary 
drawings — namely,  Sketches,  Perspectives,  and 
Competitive  Sketches. 

Preliminary  Sketches.  In  architectural  work, 
no  matter  whether  you  are  an  architect  dealing 
with  an  owner  or  client,  or  a  draftsman  getting 
out  working  drawings,  it  is  always  better  to 
make  a  preliminary  sketch  of  the  arrangement, 
detail,  etc.,  as  it  saves  time  and  much  erasing 
and  changing  on  the  scale  drawings.  By  pre- 
liminary sketches  we  mean  the  sketching  free- 
hand on  paper  to  show  exactly  just  how  you 
will  draw  it  with  the  T-square  and  triangles. 

Let  us  consider  the  architect  dealing  with  a 
client.  The  first  thing  is  an  arrangement  of  the 


• 


195 

rooms,  or  the  plan  is  first  studied.  For  this 
work,  tracing  paper  will  be  found  very  easy  to 
work  with  and  very  convenient.  The  use  of  a 
sheet  of  co-ordinate  paper  under  the  tracing 
paper  will  be  found  very  convenient.  The 
squares  on  the  co-ordinate  paper  will  serve  as  a 
guide  in  drawing  straight  lines;  and  also  the 
squares  as  ruled  on  this  paper  can  be  used  as 
a  scale — one  square  representing  one  unit,  as  a 
foot  or  an  inch. 

Very  often  the  owner  of  the  proposed  new 
building  will  have  some  scheme  or  arrangement 
of  rooms  that  he  would  like;  therefore,  try  to 
have  him  give  you  a  rough  sketch  of  such 
arrangement;  even  a  drawing  with  single  lines 
for  walls,  and  cross-lines  indicating  windows, 
will  be  very  helpful.  A  drawing  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2  is  just  what  you  want  from  your  client. 

Having  received  either  this  sketch  or  a  list 
of  the  requirements,  you  are  ready  to  start  your 
preliminary  sketches.  Spread  down  the  co-ordi- 
nate paper,  and  over  this  lay  a  sheet  of  tracing 
paper.  These  may  be  held  down  with  thumb- 
tacks or  weights  of  some  sort  placed  on  opposite 
ends.  Assume  each  square  of  the  paper  to 
represent  some  unit,  as  one  inch,  or  one  foot,  or 
ten  feet;  and  lay  out  first  the  property  lines. 
Then  commence  on  the  building  proper.  Make 
no  attempt  at  trying  to  make  exact  lines;  let 
these  sketches  be  more  of  freehand  drawing. 
Mark  off  the  approximate  sizes  of  rooms  by 
rectangles,  and  try  the  various  arrangements, 


196  AECHITECTUEAL    DRAFTING 


Fig.  2.    A  Single-Line  Sketch  Submitted,  from  which  the  Archi- 
tect Gets  an  Idea  of  the  Arrangement. 


AECHITECTUEAL    DEAFPING  197 

endeavoring  to  secure  an  ideal  arrangement. 
Make  no  attempt  at  trying  to  show  double  lines 
for  wall  lines;  let  it  be  a  free  and  easy  sketch 
of  single  lines. 

Don't  be  satisfied  with  one  arrangement  of 
the  given  requirements.  Over  this  first  sketch 
lay  another  sheet  of  tracing  paper.  Perhaps 
you  can  use  some  parts  of  the  first  sketch,  and 
revise  other  parts.  Study  your  problem,  and 
be  fully  acquainted  with  the  requirements. 
After  completing  this  second  arrangement,  try 
to  imagine  difficulties  that  this  arrangement 
would  present,  and  how  they  might  be  remedied. 
Make  another  sketch;  don't  be  satisfied  until  you 
have  made  half  a  dozen  different  sketches. 
After  having  considered  all  the  possible  arrange- 
ments of  the  requirements,  then  take  the 
sketches,  spread  them  all  out  before  you,  and 
see  if  you  have  solved  the  problem. 

Now  commence  with  a  clean  sheet  of  tracing 
paper  over  the  co-ordinate  paper,  and  make  fin- 
ished sketches;  that  is,  lay  out  the  wall  lines 
carefully,  put  in  the  windows  and  doors,  letter 
the  rooms,  and  get  these  drawings  into  shape  to 
submit  them  to  the  client.  Make  them  so  that 
he  will  understand  clearly  the  arrangement  you 
have  sketched. 

For  filling  in  the  walls  to  indicate  the  walls 
and  the  windows,  it  will  help  the  appearance 
to  color  the  walls  on  the  back  side  of  the  paper 
with  the  pencil.  This  gives  a  subdued  color  to 


198  AECHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 

the  walls,  and  increases  the  clearness  of  the  plan 
or  drawing. 

Prepare  small  sketches  of  possible  treatment 
of  the  elevations,  and  submit  these  also  with 
the  plan.  These  will  now  do  for  you  to  submit 
to  your  client  (see  Fig.  3).  Be  very  sure  that 
you  have  studied  the  problem  thoroughly,  and 
be  prepared  to  answer  all  questions  your  client 
will  probably  ask.  The  client  will  very  soon 
form  an  opinion  of  your  ability  by  the  way 
you  handle  his  work. 

When  these  first  preliminary  sketches  are 
ready,  notify  your  client,  unless  you  have  had  a 
previous  time  of  meeting  set.  If  this  be  the 
case,  then  be  sure  to  have  your  work  ready  for 
him  at  the  appointed  time.  Remember,  your 
client  is  a  busy  business  man,  a  man  who  is 
always  used  to  keeping  his  appointments,  and 
expects  everyone  to  keep  theirs. 

After  these  first  sketches  have  been  sub- 
mitted, and  carefully  gone  over,  make  an  ap- 
pointment for  the  next  meeting,  at  which  time 
you  will  have  the  final  preliminary  sketches 
ready.  There  will  always  be  changes  and  addi- 
tions on  these  sketches;  and  the  fewer  times 
the  client  has  to  be  consulted,  the  better  im- 
pression you  will  make.  Therefore,  after  this 
first  meeting,  understand  thoroughly  your 
client's  objections  and  changes,  ask  questions 
to  make  sure  you  do  understand,  and  go  back 
to  your  office  determined  to  make  the  revisions 


.^V; 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 


199 


Pig.  3.    First  Sketch  Beady  to  Submit  to  Owner. 

Original  drawn  at  scale  of  %"  =  I'-O",  all  freehand  and  drawn  on 

co-ordinate  paper. 


200  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

and  that  the  next  sketches  submitted  will  be 
approved. 

For  the  next  sketches,  it  is  very  often  more 
satisfactory  to  use  the  T-square  and  triangles, 
and  a  scale,  and  make  small,  sketchy  drawings. 
Tack  down  your  tracing  paper,  and  lay  out  to 
a  small  scale  the  general  arrangement  (Fig.  4). 
Every  little  detail  need  not  be  attempted  on 
these  sketches;  but  make  them  straight-line 
drawings,  using  more  care  in  the  finishing  of 
such  drawings.  Make  all  plans  necessary,  show- 
ing the  arrangement  on  all  floors;  also  an  eleva- 
tion. Make  them  attractive,  and  letter  com- 
pletely. 

The  next  meeting  with  your  client  should  be 
the  last  one  so  far  as  the  sketches  are  concerned. 
Have  him  look  over  all  your  sketches  closely; 
go  over  them  with  him,  pointing  out  the  changes, 
telling  him  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  this 
or  that  arrangement,  and  convince  him  that  you 
know  your  business.  He  will  finally  see  things 
your  way,  and  he  will  tell  you  to  go  ahead  with 
the  work.  If  you  see  he  is  satisfied  with  the 
arrangement  as  shown  him  on  the  sketches, 
secure  if  possible  his  initials  of  approval  (in 
ink)  on  each  sheet.  Don't  ask  him  to  "sign 
these  sketches,"  as  if  you  were  an  owner  and 
he  a  lease-holder.  If  there  is  anything  a  busi- 
ness man  hesitates  to  do,  it  is  to  sign  his  name 
to  a  paper  of  any  kind.  Use  a  little  tact,  tell 
him  that  you  want  him  to  be  perfectly  satisfied; 
and  in  order  for  him  to  be  sure  he  is  going  to 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


201 


tf/TCHZN 
12.' 


DINING  QOOM 

17'*  15' 


n~oop  PLAN 


Fig.  4.    Final  Preliminary  Drawing. 
Drawn  with  T-square  and  triangles  to  scale. 


202  AECHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 

get  the  arrangement  that  suited  him,  he  can 
O.  K.  the  sketches  that  he  approves,  and  thereby 
have  a  check  on  the  working  drawings  so  that 
they  will  be  sure  to  be  what  he  wants.  On  the 
other  hand,  you  are  protecting  yourself  by  this 
signature.  Very  often  your  client  may  forget 
that  he  ordered  this  or  that  change  in  your 
sketches;  he  might  in  some  cases  refuse  to  pay 
you  your  agreed  commission,  because  you  did 
not  do  this  or  that  thing  which  he  ordered.  If 
you  have  his  signature  on  the  sketches,  and 
you  have  followed  these  sketches  exactly,  you 
will  not  fear  the  outcome  should  the  case  go  to 
law  for  settlement. 

The  same  general  method  of  procedure  will 
apply  if  you  are  a  draftsman  getting  out  scale 
details.  Get  out  freehand  sketches  on  tracing 
paper,  several  of  them;  decide  which  is  the  best 
method  before  making  the  regular  scale  details. 
If  you  are  a  new  man  in  an  office,  submit  your 
best  sketch  for  the  construction  to  the  head 
draftsman,  and  let  him  see  that  you  are  studying 
your  work,  endeavoring  to  get  the  best  method. 
Learn  to  make  your  sketches  clear  and  well 
executed.  This  comes  only  by  practice  in 
sketching. 

Much  time  and  money  can  be  saved  on  the 
cost  of  getting  out  the  drawings  if  only  you 
learn  to  make  these  sketches  well  and  complete, 
so  that  when  you  are  ready  to  make  the  final 
drawings,  you  can  start  and  know  definitely  just 
what  they  will  include. 


AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  303 

It  will  be  found  very  convenient  to  use  a 
soft  pencil.  Never  use  a  hard  pencil  on  your 
drawings,  no  matter  whether  they  are  the 
sketches  or  scale  drawings. 

It  is  very  necessary  for  a  draftsman  to  know 
how  to  make  preliminary  sketches.  Very  often 
a  new  draftsman's  ability  along  architectural 
lines  is  tested  by  these  preliminary  sketches, 
their  make-up,  the  method  of  getting  them  out, 
and  the  time  taken  to  get  them  ready.  If  a  firm 
finds  out  that  you  can  make  attractive  and  yet 
practical  preliminary  sketches,  you  will  soon 
find  out  that  you  will  not  be  required  to  serve 
your  time  at  tracing  drawings  or  details,  as  most 
draftsmen  have  to  do  upon  entering  a  new  office. 

Perspective  Sketches.  A  perspective  is  a 
representation  of  a  building  or  object  as  it  ap- 
pears from  a  fixed  point.  These  sketches  are  usu- 
ally drawn  at  a  small  scale,  either  freehand  or 
mechanically.  The  lines  should  be  lightly  drawn 
or  sketched,  as  strong  lines  will  be  objection- 
able in  the  rendering  or  coloring  of  the  drawing. 
The  rendering  may  be  in  pencil,  ink,  water- 
color,  or  sometimes  in  crayon,  and  prepared 
upon  almost  any  kind  of  paper  (see  Fig.  5). 

Competition  Drawings.  These  are  more  or 
less  preliminary  sketches.  As  a  general  thing 
it  is  only  occasionally  that  a  firm  enters  a  com- 
petition; but  if  it  should,  let  the  draftsman  show 
that  he  knows  how  to  prepare  such  drawings. 
By  competition  drawings,  we  mean  drawings 
that  are  submitted  in  a  competition.  The  firms 


204 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


may  be  invited  to  submit  competition  designs, 
in  which  case  it  is  called  a  closed  competition; 
or  the  requirements  may  be  published  in  some 


Fig.  5.    A  Freehand  Perspective  Sketch. 

architectural  paper,  and  anyone  may  submit 
drawings,  in  which  case  it  is  called  an  open 
competition.  The  drawings  submitted  for  the 
open  competition  are  more  of  the  nature  of 
sketches  than  in  the  closed  competition.  Usu- 
ally, in  the  closed  competition,  each  firm  invited 
to  submit  drawings  will  be  paid  for  their  work 
even  though  unsuccessful  in  being  the  winner. 
There  is  generally  a  sum  paid  for  such  drawings. 
Thus,  in  a  closed  competition,  an  architect  is 
paid  for  his  time  and  can  afford  to  get  out  a 
better  class  of  drawings.  These  are  usually 
drawn  on  regular  drawing  paper,  carefully  laid 
out  to  scale,  and  all  inked  in.  The  sheet  is  then 
water-colored  and  made  as  attractive  as  possible 


AECHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING  205 

in  this  manner.  In  other  words,  these  drawings 
are  laid  out  as  carefully,  except  at  a  much 
smaller  scale,  as  working  drawings;  only  the 
important  dimensions  are  put  on. 

In  the  open  competition,  the  work  is  usually 
done  on  tracing  paper.  The  plans  are  laid  out 
at  a  small  scale,  made  very  sketchy,  and  the 
pencil  is  allowed  much  freedom  in  the  lines. 
With  this  sort  of  drawing,  it  is  necessary  to 
study  the  requirements,  make  sketches,  and 
decide  for  yourself  which  answers  the  require- 
ments the  best.  There  will  be  no  client  to  criti- 
cise your  work,  but  you  will  have  to  do  this  for 
yourself  and  submit  your  sketches  as  final 
sketches  to  the  client.  The  first-floor  plan  is 
laid  out,  and  the  surrounding  premises  are  also 
laid  out.  Trees  and  shrubbery  also  are  put  on; 
and  walks,  drives,  and  gardens  are  shown.  Since 
this  is  on  tracing  paper,  very  little  water-color 
is  used.  Use  the  pencil  to  show  everything, 
and  upon  your  ability  to  use  your  pencil — and 
a  soft  one,  too — will  depend  much  of  the  success 
of  your  drawings.  After  these  sketches  have 
been  made,  they  are  lettered  and  titled  attrac- 
tively, and  then  mounted  on  cardboard.  This 
mounting  is  usually  done  by  pasting  the  corners 
only,  and  not  attempting  to  paste  the  whole 
drawing.  Ordinarily,  a  border  of  some  sort  is 
placed  around  the  card,  and  any  other  finishing 
touches  that  will  make  the  drawing  attract 
attention  are  added.  Thus  we  see  that  competi- 


206  AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

tion  drawings  are  only  preliminary  sketches 
finished  a  little  better  than  for  the  ordinary  class 
of  work. 

Should  you  be  successful  in  the  competition, 
the  method  of  getting  out  the  working  drawings, 
scale  details,  and  other  drawings,  is  the  same 
as  for  any  other  work. 

The  chances  are  that  you  will  rarely  have  a 
chance  to  get  out  competition  drawings;  but 
should  the  opportunity  come,  grasp  it,  and  do 
your  best. 

Working  Drawings 

By  working  drawings  we  mean  drawings 
complete  in  every  respect,  with  dimensions, 
sizes  of  rooms,  etc.  In  other  words,  they  are 
the  drawings  giving  all  the  necessary  informa- 
tion to  completely  build  the  structure  as  drawn. 
This  division  of  drawings  may  be  divided  into 
general  and  detail  drawings,  the  latter  being 
subdivided  into  scale  and  full-size. 

The  architect  who  is  mindful  of  his  client's 
welfare  will  furnish  a  complete  set  of  drawings, 
The  clearest,  simplest,  and  most  exact  working 
drawing  is  the  best.  Some  architects  feel  that 
working  drawings  do  not  require  the  best  work. 
The  making  of  good,  clear,  complete  drawings 
cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly. 

The  Plan.  In  the  plan  we  see  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  rooms  for  the  different  floors  that 
approaches  the  ideal  as  nearly  as  possible.  The 
plan  should  present  the  conveniences  of  arrange- 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  207 

ment.  In  the  following  description  we  shall- 
consider  the  plan  of  a  residence,  as  it  will  clearly 
set  forth  the  logical  arrangement  of  parts.  The 
description,  as  noted,  will  be  limited  to  residence 
work,  since  this  class  of  building  is  likely  to 
afford  a  student  his  first  opportunity  for  inde- 
pendent, original  work. 

The  same  reasoning  could  be  extended  and 
applied  to  any  class  of  building.  Usually  the 
first-floor  plan  is  worked  out  first,  as  it  is  the 
most  important,  since  the  greater  part  of  the 
day  is  spent  in  this  portion  of  the  house.  The 
upper  floors,  being  used  almost  entirely  for  bed- 
rooms or  minor  rooms,  can  be  worked  out  to 
conform  to  the  outline  of  the  first-floor  plan. 
The  basement  usually  is  devoted  to  the  heating 
apparatus  and  its  accessories,  the  laundry,  store- 
rooms, and  such.  Therefore,  the  first-floor  plan 
will  govern  the  outline  of  the  basement  walls; 
and  the  basement  rooms  will  be  arranged  inside 
the  basement  walls,  as  determined  by  the  first- 
floor  plan. 

In  residence  work  we  see  two  classifica- 
tions— the  city  house  and  the  country  house. 
The  city  house  gets  its  sunlight  from  the  front 
and  rear,  being  usually  built  in  between  adjacent 
houses  where  there  is  no  chance  of  sunlight  from 
the  sides.  A  country  house  gets  its  light  from 
all  four  sides;  that  is,  it  is  built  in  a  part  of 
town  where  the  lots  are  of  sufficient  width  to 
give  plenty  of  light  and  air.  The  city  house 


208  ARCHITECTUBAL   DEAFTING 

usually  has  a  lot  20  to  30  feet  wide,  and  it  is 
a  question  of  the  best  arrangement  for  light  as 
well  as  comfort.  The  country  house  usually 
has  a  lot  50  to  60  feet  wide;  and  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  a  house  built  on  two  lots,  giving 
all  the  more  room. 

Let  us,  therefore,  consider  the  first-floor  plan. 
Upon  entering  a  residence,  we  usually  step  into 
a  vestibule.  This  room,  while  small  and  inferior, 
yet  is  one  of  the  most  important  rooms  in  the 
house.  The  vestibule  should  be  well  lighted, 
which  can  be  done  by  means  of  glass  in  the 
front  door,  by  side  lights  along  the  sides  of  the 
door,  by  a  transom,  and  by  glass  in  the  door 
leading  into  the  living  room.  The  vestibule 
should  be  provided  if  possible  with  a  closet  (it 
need  not  be  large),  in  which  a  person's  every- 
day hats  and  wraps  may  be  kept,  also  all  rub- 
bers and  umbrellas.  It  is  very  evident  that 
this  will  be  the  first  need  upon  entering  a  home — 
a  place  to  dispose  of  one 's  coat,  hat,  etc.,  before 
entering  the  home  proper.  It  is  all  the  more 
urgent  in  a  mild,  rainy  climate.  In  case  a  closet 
cannot  be  provided,  there  should  be  a  seat  with 
a  hiriged  cover,  and  a  stand  for  umbrellas,  with 
the  usual  furniture  for  holding  the  coats  and 
hats.  This  room,  as  already  said,  need  not  be 
large,  as  usually  not  more  than  two  people  are 
ever  in  the  room  at  the  same  time.  In  some 
residences  there  is  no  vestibule,  but  it  is  almost 
a  necessity  in  the  best  class  of  work. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  209 

From  the  vestibule,  we  now  come  to  the 
reception  room.  This  room  is  usually  large,  with 
but  little  furniture.  The  main  stairway  leads 
up  from  one  side  of  this  room  and  is  made  quite 
ornamental.  The  other  side  is  usually  open, 
or  separated  by  columns  or  grill-work  from  the 
living  room.  At  one  end  of  the  reception  room, 
one  frequently  sees  a  fireplace,  more  or  less 
elaborate. 

Turning  now  to  the  living  room,  let  us. study 
the  requirements  of  this  room.  Here  is  the 
room  the  family  will  spend  most  of  the  time  in. 
Often  one  end  is  set  apart  for  a  nook  or  library. 
There  should  be  a  large  open  room  with  a  fire- 
place of  brick  or  stone  or  tile  or  other  suitable 
material,  ornamental  or  plain,  or  the  mantel  may 
be  of  wood. 

Provide  plenty  of  windows,  especially  on  the 
sunny  side  of  the  house.  Nothing  will  dispel 
gloomy  feelings  or  worry  quicker  than  plenty 
of  sunlight  and  fresh  air.  For  the  nook,  if  there 
is  one,  build  in  shelves  for  books,  put  in  a  seat 
with  a  hinged  cover,  also  a  fireplace.  In  this 
room,  the  quiet  hours  of  the  day  are  spent; 
therefore  make  it  comfortable  and  convenient. 
A  very  convenient  arrangement  is  to  place  a 
seat  on  one  side,  with  bookshelves  on  the  other; 
also  a  few  shelves  at  one  end  or  above  the  seat, 
for  current  books  or  periodicals.  Provide  a 
plate-rail  around  this  nook,  for  the  placing  of 
china,  ornaments,  or  bric-a-brac. 

Opening  from  the  living  room  we  usually 


210  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

find  the  dining  room,  separated  by  sliding  doors. 
This  room  should  be  more  or  less  private,  but 
by  means  of  double  doors  it  may  be  thrown 
open  when  desired.  In  the  dining  room,  build 
in  a  sideboard,  and  provide  a  small  shelf  or  two 
for  pretty  china,  vases,  or  ornaments.  Back  of 
these  shelves  a  mirror  is  usually  set.  A  French 
beveled-plate  mirror  is  used  in  the  best  work. 
There  should  be  the  " counter,"  or  the  main 
shelf,  projecting  from  two  to  six  inches  beyond 
the  shelves  and  drawers  below.  Below  the 
counter,  provide  a  long  drawer  that  will  take 
a  table-cloth  as  folded  when  laundered.  A 
drawer  for  silver  is  also  directly  under  the 
counter.  Below  this,  there  may  be  either 
drawers  for  other  table  linen,  or  shelves  enclosed 
by  glass  doors  for  displaying  china  or  cut  glass. 
This  sideboard  should  be  made  an  attractive 
feature  of  the  room.  There  might  also  be  an- 
other case  of  shelves  and  drawers  for  additional 
table  linen  and  dishes.  There  should  be  a  plate- 
rail  around  the  room,  on  which  to  hang  cups  or 
to  place  china  or  ornaments.  This  room  should 
have,  if  possible,  an  east  exposure,  since  the 
first  meal  of  the  day  should  be  served  in  a  bright, 
cheery  atmosphere. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  serving  pantry 
between  the  dining  room  and  kitchen.  There 
should  be  double-acting  doors.  This  greatly 
facilitates  the  carrying  of  dishes  from  one  room 
to  another.  In  this  pantry  should  be  a  wide 
shelf  or  counter  which  will  be  used  in  the  prep- 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  211 

aration  of  the  meal.  Above  are  shelves  with 
sliding  doors,  and  below  are  drawers  for  differ- 
ent articles  of  food.  Provide  always  plenty  of 
drawers  and  shelf  room.  In  a  small  room, 
sliding  doors  will  be  found  much  more  con- 
venient than  swing  doors,  as  they  are  much  more 
easily  handled  and  take  up  much  less  room  in 
opening  and  closing.  If  possible,  there  should 
be  built  in  this  room  a  refrigerator.  If  not  here, 
place  it  in  the  kitchen.  This  refrigerator  should 
be  provided  with  an  outside  door  through  which 
the  ice  may  be  replenished  from  the  outside, 
thereby  doing  away  with  the  ice  man  coming  in 
at  all  hours  and  in  bad  weather  tracking  mud 
into  the  house. 

The  kitchen,  while  in  the  rear  of  the  house, 
requires  careful  thought.  The  housekeeper 
usually  spends  the  greater  part  of  the  morning 
here;  therefore  give  this  room,  if  possible,  an 
east  exposure.  Make  the  windows  low  enough 
so  that  a  person  sitting  can  see  out.  For  the 
kitchen  table  and  sink,  have  a  window  near. 
This  will  not  only  be  an  aid  to  better  light,  but 
will  give  the  housekeeper  a  chance  to  see  out 
through  the  window.  Place  a  sink  as  near  the 
pantry  and  dining  room  as  possible;  also,  as 
mentioned  above,  so  as  to  be  near  outside  light. 
In  the  kitchen  will  be  found  a  cooking  range  or 
gas  stove,  or  both.  Place  these,  if  possible, 
where  they  will  get  a  cross-draft;  in  other 
words,  place  them  between  a  door  and  a  window, 
or  between  windows,  so  that  the  odor  during 


212  AKCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 

the  preparation  of  a  meal  will  be  carried  away. 
Of  course  there  is  necessary  a  flue  for  the  range, 
and  there  should  also  be  one  for  the  gas  stove 
to  carry  off  the  odors  of  the  gas  and  the  ovens. 
The  kitchen  table  should  be  convenient  to  the 
stoves.  There  should  be  built-in  shelves  and 
cupboards  for  the  kitchen-ware  and  the  pots  and 
kettles.  Either  in  the  serving  pantry  or  some- 
where in  the  kitchen,  provide  a  tilting  bin  for 
the  flour.  This  can  be  very  easily  done  by 
making  the  bin  pivoted  at  the  outside  corners,  to 
allow  the  bin  to  tilt  out.  Hooks  or  pivots  for 
swinging  a  barrel  of  sugar  would  also  be  a  great 
convenience.  Do  not  make  the  kitchen  large; 
make  it  small,  compact,  and  convenient,  to  save 
the  housekeeper  all  unnecessary  steps.  There 
will  also  be  necessary  rear  stairs,  one  to  the 
basement  and  one  to  the  attic.  These  stairs 
should  be  about  3  feet  6  inches  wide,  as  boxes, 
furniture,  etc.,  are  all  taken  up  or  down  these 
stairs ;  so  do  not  make  them  too  small. 

Having  decided  upon  a  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment of  the  lower  floor,  we  now  consider  the 
upper  floors.  These  are  devoted  to  the  bed- 
rooms and  other  rooms  where  more  privacy  is 
desired,  such  as  the  sewing  room,  the  study,  or 
the  nursery.  As  has  been  said,  the  first-floor 
plan  determines  the  outline  of  the  second-floor 
plan.  The  number  of  bedrooms  is  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  family.  There  will  be  required 
also  a  guest  room  and  a  servant's  room. 

As  to  the  requirements  of  a  bedroom,  make 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING  213 

ample-sized  rooms.  The  usual  articles  of  furni- 
ture will  be  the  bed,  a  dresser,  a  chiffonier,  a 
small  table,  and  sometimes  a  writing  desk  or 
an  additional  table  of  some  sort.  Provide  plenty 
of  closet  room,  with  a  window,  if  possible,  in  it. 
In  the  closet  should  be  a  number  of  shelves,  a 
hook  strip  around  the  three  sides.  The  closet 
should  be  finished,  so  far  as  plaster  and  inside 
finish  are  concerned,  as  well  as  the  other  rooms. 
The  question  of  closets  is  important;  therefore, 
consider  them  an  essential  part  of  every  house. 
On  the  second  floor  provide  a  bathroom  con- 
venient to  all  rooms,  yet  far  enough  away  from 
the  main  hall  to  be  private.  The  bathroom  is 
usually  crowded  into  any  remaining  space  that 
may  be  left  after  bedrooms  have  been  consid- 


c 


o 


Fig.  6.    Layout  of  a  Very  Small  Bathroom. 

ered.  This,  however,  is  not  a  satisfactory  way 
of  doing,  since  the  bathroom  should  be  as  con- 
venient in  arrangement  as  any  other  room.  In 
the  bathroom  the  usual  necessary  fixtures  are 
a  bathtub,  a  lavatory  or  wash-bowl,  and  a  water- 
closet.  In  more  expensive  homes  a  foot-bath 
and  a  sitz  bath  are  provided;  sometimes  a 
shower  bath  also.  There  should  be  ample  room 
for  the  placing  of  these  fixtures,  with  plenty  of 


214 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


room  around  them.  In  Fig.  6  is  shown  the 
smallest  room  that  can  accommodate  the  neces- 
sary fixtures.  While  this  will  serve  in  the 
cheapest  houses,  yet  the  arrangements  shown  in 
Figs.  7  and  8  are  much  better. 

Should  more  fixtures  be  added,  the  room 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 

Two  Plans  of  Commodious  Bathrooms. 

should  also  be  made  larger  to  accommodate 
them.  There  will  also  be  required  a  medicine 
chest,  usually  built  into  the  wall  directly  above 
the  lavatory,  or  these  can  be  bought  at  furniture 
stores,  ready  to  hang  on  the  wall.  There  should 
always  be  a  mirror  in  the  door  of  this  chest. 
Provide  a  built-in  closet  with  swing  doors  for 
the  upper  half  and  drawers  for  the  lower  half. 
The  finish  of  this  room,  as  well  as  the  shape  of 
the  mouldings,  should  be  such  that  the  dust  will 
not  easily  settle  on  them,  and  that  they  may  be 
frequently  washed  to  remove  any  accumulation 
of  dust. 

In  most  homes,  the  two  main  floors  are  all 
that  are  required  for  living  rooms.  The  attic 
is  usually  low,  and  can  be  fitted  up  with  store- 


n\  \ 


$: 


u 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  215 

rooms.  The  construction  of  the  roof  should  be 
such  that  soot  and  dirt  cannot  come  through. 
This  is  ordinarily  accomplished  by  using  build- 
ing paper  under  the  shingles  or  roof  covering. 
There  should  be  an  attic  stairs,  convenient  and 
easy  of  ascent. 

For  the  basement,  the  furnace  will  require  a 
part  of  the  space,  together  with  a  coal  room. 
This  coal  room  should  be  built  dust-tight,  and 
have  a  window  convenient  to  a  driveway  for 
the  unloading  of  coal.  The  size  of  coal  room  for 
different  classes  of  coal,  is  indicated  below  under 
the  heading  "Dimensions."  There  should  be  a 
laundry  with  laundry  tubs,  or  a  room  where  the 
family  washing  may  be  done.  The  remaining 
space  in  the  basement  may  be  divided  to  suit 
the  owner's  wishes;  sometimes  a  work-room,  a 
store-room,  a  drying  room,  a  shop,  may  be  placed 
here. 

It  is  very  essential  to  have  a  concrete  floor 
over  the  entire  basement.  This  will  do  away 
with  a  great  deal  of  dirt  and  dust  that  otherwise 
would  be  carried  from  the  basement  all  over  the 
house.  There  should  be  an  outside  entrance, 
as  well  as  an  entrance  from  the  kitchen  or 
serving  room. 

Thus  we  see  the  usual  requirements  for  the 
different  rooms  of  the  house.  The  essential 
rooms  have  been  considered.  In  addition  to 
these,  if  the  price  will  warrant  it,  there  may  be 
other  rooms  and  conveniences,  such  as  a  den 
or  study,  additional  store-rooms,  an  extra  guest 


216  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

room,  a  nursery,  a  pantry  off  the  kitchen  for 
storing  the  supplies  of  the  kitchen.  A  clothes- 
chute  would  be  very  convenient  also.  This  chute 
is  a  vertical  shaft  connecting  the  bathroom  with 
the  laundry  in  the  basement.  There  is  a  door 
into  this  chute  at  the  bathroom,  and  one  on  the 
first  floor.  It  should  be  lined  with  wood,  with 
the  pieces  placed  vertically  to  offer  no  obstruc- 
tions to  the  passage  of  clothes.  The  purpose  is 
evident,  being  a  means  of  conveying  the  soiled 
linen  from  the  second  and  first  floors  to  the  base- 
ment, and  thereby  saving  carrying  them  from 
all  over  the  house  in  a  basket  to  the  basement. 

In  summing  up  this  portion  of  the  work,  let 
the  draftsman  put  in  all  conveniences  in  the  way 
of  cupboards,  shelves,  and  drawers  wherever 
there  is  a  space,  corner,  or  portion  of  a  wall.  In 
this  way  you  make  a  favorable  impression  upon 
the  housekeeper,  and  if  this  is  done,  the  "  battle 
is  more  than  half  won." 

Fig.  9  is  a  first-floor  plan,  showing  the 
arrangement,  the  dimensions,  and  all  necessary 
information  to  give  the  builder  a  complete 
understanding  of  the  work. 

The  Elevation.  Having  considered  briefly 
the  general  methods  used  in  the  drawing  of 
architectural  plans,  we  shall  now  consider  the 
elevations.  By  elevations  we  mean  the  different 
" views"  of  the  building.  These  should  show 
exactly  the  appearance  of  the  building  wheD 
completed. 

Use  of  the  Orders.    It  will  be  assumed  that 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING  217 

the  reader  is  familiar  with  the  Orders  of  Archi- 
tecture (see  below  under  heading  "  Orders  of 
Architecture"),  and  that  he  knows  the  names 
of  the  various  parts  of  an  Order. 

From  a  study  of  the  Orders,  we  see  that  each 
one  has  three  main  divisions,  the  entablature, 
the  column,  and  the  pedestal.  These  are  in  turn 
divided  into  parts,  the  entablature  consisting  of 
the  cornice,  the  frieze,  and  the  architrave;  the 
column  has  a  capital,  a  shaft,  and  a  base  or 
plinth;  and  the  pedestal,  a  cap,  a  die,  and  a  base. 
Generally  speaking,  an  elevation — especially  the 
principal  one — shows  these  component  parts  of 
an  Order.  They  may  not  be  classically  correct  in 
proportions,  but  the  parts  are  more  or  less 
prominent,  and  should  be  used  as  a  basis  for 
design  of  all  classes  of  work. 

Let  us  take  a  residence  for  an  example. 
Study  an  elevation  of  a  good  type  of  this  class 
of  building.  We  see  that  the  basement  wall  up 
to  the  first-floor  line  corresponds  to  the  pedestal 
of  the  column,  a  strong,  massive  part  to  support 
the  building  above.  This  pedestal  is  usually 
capped  by  a  projecting  course  we  call  a  water- 
table — that  is,  a  board  or  strip  projecting  from 
the  face  of  a  wall  to  turn  the  water  from  the 
side  of  the  building  away  from  the  foundation. 
This  corresponds  to  the  base  or  plinth  of  the 
column.  Above  the  water-table,  the  part  of  the 
house  extending  to  above  the  top  story  windows 
corresponds  to  the  shaft  of  the  column.  Very 
often  this  column  effect  is  emphasized  by  means 


218 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


f          FINIM<;  Moon 
*1 


Tig.  9.     First-Floor  Plan  of  a  Residence  at  Champaign,  111. 
The  scale  reproduced  is  valid  only  as  referring  to  the  original-sized 

drawing. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  219 

of  corner  boards  at  the  corners  of  the  building. 
At  the  head  of  the  top  windows,  or  in  that  vicin- 
ity, we  see  a  horizontal  board  or  moulding,  mark- 
ing the  division  between  the  column  and  the  en- 
tablature. Sometimes  this  entablature  is  divided 
by  another  moulded  course,  indicating  the 
frieze  and  the  architrave.  There  is  always  a  cor- 
nice of  some  sort,  very  often  corresponding  to 
the  cornice  of  the  Order;  this  may  vary  from  the 
true  profile  to  a  small  projection,  such  as  a  few 
projecting  courses  of  brick. 

In  the  modern  office  building  we  see  the  lower 
stories  marked  by  a  projecting  stone  course; 
below  this,  the  walls  are  of  stone,  and  usually 
present  a  solid,  substantial  base  upon  which  rests 
the  upper  part  of  the  building.  The  column  is  in- 
dicated either  by  pilasters  or  column-like  projec- 
tions from  the  main  face  of  the  building,  or  by  a 
three-quarter  column  fastened  to  the  building. 
The  upper  stories,  depending  upon  the  height  of 
the  building,  are  placed  in  the  entablature. 

It  is  worth  while  to  study  this  feature  in  all 
classes  of  building,  in  order  to  design  intelli- 
gently. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Orders  of  Architecture 
are  really  the  basis  for  all  our  designs.  This  same 
applies  to  any  type  of  building,  being  more 
marked  in  some  classes  of  buildings  than  others. 
The  Colonial  residence  or  Colonial  Architecture 
adheres  strictly  to  this  basis  of  ornament.  If  de- 
tached or  free  columns  are  used  for  porch  con- 
struction, then  we  see  the  component  parts  of 


220  AKCHITECTUKAL   DKAPTHSTG 

the  Order  carried  out  exactly.  Therefore,  in  any 
building,  use  the  Order  to  start  the  general  ele- 
vations, and  elaborate  or  suit  the  elevation  to  the 
class  of  building. 

Characteristics  of  Types  of  Buildings 

Let  us  now  consider  the  general  types  of 
buildings  for  different  purposes.  The  residence, 
for  instance,  usually  has  the  appearance  of  a 
quiet,  restful  place.  The  types  of  doors,  win- 
dows, and  roof  lines  are  in  general  similar,  there 
being  large  windows  and  plenty  of  them.  Resi- 
dences thus  constitute  a  class  marked  by  well- 
known  and  easily  distinguishable  general  char- 
acteristics. 

Consider  a  library.  We  see  here  a  closer  ad- 
herence to  the  Orders  than  in  many  other  types 
of  structure.  Usually  there  is  a  pillared  entrance 
of  some  form  or  other;  the  windows  are  all  large 
and  dignified.  The  roof  is  covered  with  tile  or 
some  other  more  expensive  covering.  In  general, 
libraries  are  a  dignified  class  of  buildings,  easily 
distinguished  as  such,  and  usually  quite  costly. 

In  schoolhouses  we  see  a  class  of  buildings 
with  large  areas  devoted  to  windows,  not  usually 
of  very  great  height,  and  with  a  tower  of  some 
outline.  There  may  be  large,  blank  walls,  wrhich 
make  this  class  of  buildings  all  the  more  distinct. 

The  office  building  generally  has  numerous 
windows,  not  usually  grouped  but  placed  one 
above  the  other,  and  is  rather  plain  in  treatment 
except  at  the  cornice. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


231 


The  warehouse  forms  another  excellent  ex- 
ample of  the  exterior  indicating  the  purpose  of 
the  building.  In  this  type,  we  see  small  windows, 
some  barred,  with  heavy  doors,  showing  it  to  be 
a  building  of  great  strength  and  fire-resistance. 

Thus  endeavor,  in  designing  any  building,  to 
make  it  indicative  of  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
designed.  Study  carefully  from  examples  or 
from  pictures  these  characteristics,  and  apply 
these  principles  to  designs  you  may  submit. 

General  Composition  of  a  Building  or  Treat- 
ment of  Elevations.  A  few  words  about  the  gen- 
eral composition  or  elevation  of  a  building  might 
be  said.  There  are  a  few  principles  involved 
that  will  be  an  aid  in  deciding  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  elevation. 


Fig.  10.    Illustrating  Method  of  Treating  Elevations. 

In  A,  vertical  lines  are  emphasized,  adding  to  the  appearance  of 

height;  in  B,  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  horizontal  lines, 

adding  to  breadth  and  length  of  structure. 

The  adjoining  buildings  will  sometimes  have 
a  certain  influence  upon  the  treatment  of  the 
elevation.  Should  the  new  building  be  placed 
between  two  buildings  taller  and  larger  in  every 
way,  then  some  means  to  increase  the  general 
height  must  be  used.  Should  there  be  plenty  of 
room  and  the  buildings  on  either  side  be  far 


222 


AKCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 


enough  away  so  that  they  will  not  be  seen  or  in- 
cluded in  the  general  view  of  the  new  building, 
then  the  design  may  be  anything  in  keeping  with 
good  design.  If  the  present  buildings  are  large 
and  massive,  covering  a  good  deal  of  ground, 
then  we  shall  treat  the  new  elevation  correspond- 
ingly. In  Fig.  10  are  shown  the  results,  on  the 
same  building,  of  different  treatments  of  eleva- 
tion. In  A  we  see  vertical  lines  emphasized,  as 
they  tend  to  increase  the  height.  Such  a  treat- 
ment of  the  elevation  should  be  used  if  the  loca- 
tion were  between  two  taller  buildings.  In  B  on 
the  other  hand,  the  horizontal  lines  are  empha- 
sized. There  is  the  sill  course  or  water-table  at 


I 


A  B 

Pig.  11.    Two  Typical  Methods  of  Treating  Windows. 

the  first-floor  line;  then  a  belt  course  about  the 
second-floor  line,  and  a  course  at  the  attic  line. 
These  tend  to  lengthen  the  general  appearance, 
and  would  be  in  keeping  as  mentioned  above  for 
the  third  condition.  In  A,  we  see  that  the  cor- 
nice is  made  smaller;  while  in  B,  the  eaves  are 


AECHITECTUEAL   DEAFTING  223 

given  a  greater  projection,  thereby  giving  an- 
other horizontal  line.  A  and  B  are  exactly  the 
same  size  in  plan  and  also  in  height  to  the  eave 
line ;  yet  there  is  no  mistaking  which  appears  the 
taller. 

This  is  the  fundamental  principle  in  the  de- 
sign of  an  elevation.  Having  then  this  start  for 
the  elevation,  carry  out  the  same  principle  in  the 
windows,  either  grouping  them  and  keeping 
them  low,  for  the  design  B;  or  else  use  single 
windows  with  a  pier  or  wall  space  between.  Very 
often,  if  the  ceilings  are  high  enough,  windows 
may  have  a  transom  bar  and  transom,  thereby 
increasing  the  height.  In  the  treatment  around 
the  windows,  for  B,  we  shall  use  merely  a  cap  of 
some  kind  with  no  vertical  lines ;  while  for  A  we 
shall  make  use  of  an  outside  trim  with  a  cap. 
See  Fig.  11. 

In  all  our  designs,  it  has  been  attempted  to 
emphasize  either  the  vertical  lines  or  the  hori- 
zontal lines.  This  is  but  one — the  most  impor- 
tant one,  however — of  the  points  to  consider  as 
to  the  general  character  of  the  elevation.  The 
purpose  of  the  elevation  is  to  give  an  effect  that 
will  be  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  at  the  same  time 
fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  plan  as  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  windows  and  story  heights;  and 
very  often  it  will  make  the  property  more  valu- 
able. For,  consider  two  residences  offered  for 
sale  at  the  same  price,  with  the  same  surround- 
ings. One  has  been  built  with  no  idea  as  to  design 
or  relation  to  the  surrounding  buildings;  the 


224:  AECHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 

other  has  been  treated  to  correspond  with  the 
existing  conditions,  has  been  made  attractive  by 
the  arrangement  and  style  of  windows,  and  the 
cornice  has  been  designed  to  give  a  certain  ef- 
fect to  the  other  parts  of  the  design.  There  is  no 
question  which  would  be  the  best  investment. 
Work,  then,  with  this  end  in  view,  as  if  it  were 
your  own  builidng,  and  you  wanted  it  to  be  the 
very  best  for  the  money. 

In  drawing  the  elevations,  usually  each  side 
of  the  house  is  shown  on  the  drawings.  The  front 
elevation  is  made  the  most  complete.  The  owner 
wants  to  see  how  his  building  will  look  when 
completed;  therefore  show  the  materials.  If  the 
walls  are  shingled,  indicate  by  lines  that  there 
are  to  be  shingles — not  by  covering  the  entire 
front  with  perfectly  regular,  mechanical  lines 
representing  the  shingles,  but  with  patches  here 
and  there  over  the  entire  front.  Indicate  by  ar- 
rows and  lines,  similar  to  dimension  lines,  where 
the  shingles  are  to  be  used.  Indicate  the  brick 
of  the  foundation  above  grade  the  same  way. 
Show  the  type  of  windows  you  expect  to  use; 
show  the  correct  profile  or  outline  of  the  cornice; 
the  general  design  of  the  front  door  and  the 
porch  and  steps;  indicate  the  glass  in  the  door, 
whether  double  strength,  plate,  or  beveled-plate 
glass.  In  short,  make  this  front  elevation  com- 
plete, so  that  an  owner  can  see  just  the  materials 
used,  where  used,  and  just  how  the  building  will 
look  from  the  front.  Very  often  the  stairs  are 
dotted  on  this  elevation  to  show  just  how  they  go 


AKCHITECTUEAL   DEAFTING 


225 


up  to  the  next  floor  above;  but  this  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  as  it  detracts  from  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  elevation,  and  there  are  other 
and  better  methods  of  indicating  stairs,  as  ex- 
plained later. 

Very  often  there  will  be  a  small  section  of  the 
house  on  the  same  sheet  with  the  front  elevation. 


!  iii  U_AJ 

'   '  ' 


Fig.  12. 


I}. *rd(=^=ri-.---_-=!| 

.4 

Front  Elevation  of  a  Residence  at  Champaign,  111. 
Outline  emphasized. 


This  is  used  to  give  the  heights  of  the  floor-lines, 
the  window  lines,  and  the  cornice  lines,  and  not 
for  showing  of  details.  This  is  not  objectionable, 
as  the  section  is  a  separate  drawing  entirely  from 
the  elevation,  and  will  give  a  means  of  showing 


226 

the  above  data  without  marking  them  directly  on 
the  elevation. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
method  of  finishing  the  front  elevation.  A  little 
time  and  careful  work  spent  on  this  drawing  will 
very  often  confirm  a  favorable  impression  on  the 
owner.  The  style  of  letter  used  and  the  arrange- 
ment on  the  sheet  should  all  tend  to  make  the 
drawing  attractive. 

As  a  final  touch,  it  will  be  found  very  desir- 
able, after  the  elevation  is  complete,  to  outline 
the  building  with  a  heavy  line,  thus  emphasizing 
the  general  outline  of  the  building,  while  the 
other  lines  are  all  uniform  but  lighter  (see  Fig. 
12). 

The  side  and  rear  elevations  should  also  be 
complete  in  that  they  should  show  the  exact  ma- 
terials used  and  the  exact  size  and  spacing  of  the 
openings;  but  they  need  not  be  so  carefully 
drawn  nor  so  carefully  lettered  as  the  front  ele- 
vation, since  they  are  more  or  less  a  secondary 
consideration. 

The  location  of  openings  should  be  studied 
with  the  idea  of  the  general  effect  on  the  eleva- 
tion, as  well  as  on  the  necessary  arrangement  for 
the  rooms.  In  other  words,  do  not  locate  all  open- 
ings on  the  plans  definitely  without  studying  the 
elevations  also.  Be  sure  that  the  openings  are 
correctly  located  on  the  elevations  so  that  the 
plans  and  elevations  will  agree,  and  not  merely 
put  on  the  elevations  where  they  look  the  best 
without  any  reference  to  the  plans. 


AECHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING  227 

To  sum  up,  make  the  elevations  true  pictures 
of  the  building  when  completed;  indicate  the  ex- 
tent of  all  materials ;  study  the  design,  making  it 
typical  of  the  class  of  building  in  hand,  and  make 
it  complete  in  every  respect. 

Scale  Details 

The  Section.  Having  completed  the  plans 
and  elevations,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  large- 
scale  sections  through  different  parts  of  the 
building.  A  section  should  be  shown  through 
every  portion  of  the  building  that  is  of  different 
construction  from  others.  These  sections  are 
usually  of  a  larger  scale  than  the  plans  and  ele- 
vations. 

In  Fig.  13  we  see  the  method  of  drawing  and 
finishing  these  details.  A  scale  very  convenient 
for  use  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch  equals  one 
foot  (or,  as  it  is  often  called,  a  "three-quarter- 
inch"  scale).  The  purpose  of  these  sections  is  to 
show  exactly  how  the  building  is  to  be  put  up — 
the  method  of  supporting  the  cornice  on  the 
plate;  the  roof  sheathing  and  covering;  the  con- 
struction of  the  gutter,  with  all  materials  named; 
the  ceiling  joists  and  method  of  support  on  the 
outside  wall;  the  lath  and  plaster;  the  wall 
sheathing  and  siding  or  shingles;  the  picture 
mould;  the  detail  of  the  inside  window  trim;  the 
base  around  the  room;  the  second-floor  construc- 
tion, showing  size  of  joists  and  method  of  sup- 
port on  the  wall;  the  composition  of  the  floor, 
whether  double  or  single,  or  any  paper  between 


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the  floors;  the  lath  and  plaster  of  the  ceiling  be- 
low; the  details  of  the  window  construction,  trim 
and  stool  or  inside  sill;  the  base  around  the  room; 
the  method  of  supporting  the  frame  wall  upon 
the  basement  wall;  the  water-table;  the  thick- 
ness of  the  basement  wall;  the  level  of  the  ground 
on  the  outside;  the  basement  floor  inside;  and 
the  footing. 

Use  plenty  of  dimension  lines  and  explana- 
tory notes.  In  dimensioning  story  heights,  al- 
ways give  from  finished  floor-line  to  finished 
floor-line,  or  from  floor  to  ceiling;  never  dimen- 
sion the  thickness  of  the  floor  construction.  In 
other  words,  referring  to  Fig.  13,  we  shall  get 
into  trouble  by  trying  to  specify  exactly  the 
thickness  over  all.  This  should  be  left  without 
a  dimension,  by  showing  the  plaster,  noting  the 
size  of  joists,  and  showing  the  floor,  whether  one 
or  two  thicknesses,  let  it  come  what  it  will.  The 
thickness  of  the  plaster  will  vary  slightly;  a  2- 
inch  by  10-inch  joist  is  not  10  inches  deep; 
neither  is  a  floor  of  two  thicknesses  2  inches 
thick.  Thus  we  see  it  is  rather  an  uncertain  di- 
mension. 

A  sheet  is  usually  devoted  to  these  details. 
Sometimes  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  different  sec- 
tions are  drawn  for  a  residence,  each  showing 
differences  in  construction. 

Be  very  careful  to  note  on  the  plans  just 
where  each  section  is  taken,  and  put  correspond- 
ing letters  on  the  title  for  the  section.  The  use 
of  notes  and  plenty  of  them  cannot  be  urged  too 


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ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  231 

strongly.  The  small  working  drawings  are  very 
unreliable  as  to  details;  and  consequently  the 
more  details,  the  better  the  contractor  will  un- 
derstand just  exactly  what  he  is  to  furnish,  and 
will  therefore  be  able  to  figure  the  more  closely. 
These  details,  well  executed,  will  prevent  many 
disputes  between  contractor  and  architect,  and 
between  architect  and  owner,  as  well  as  save  the 
"extra"  bills  from  the  contractor  which  are  sure 
to  arise  from  incomplete  drawings. 

Cross-hatch  or  cross-section  all  sections  or 
materials  that  are  cut  in  two,  using  some  stand- 
ard symbol,  as  elsewhere  indicated,  on  the  draw- 
ings. This  makes  a  much  better  looking  draw- 
ing, and  makes  it  much  easier  to  interpret. 

To  indicate  further  the  general  treatment  of 
the  interior  finish,  the  rooms  having  anything  in 
the  way  of  a  paneled  wainscot,  beamed  ceiling, 
or  finish  around  a  fireplace,  also  the  sideboard, 
cupboards,  and  pantry  fittings,  should  all  be 
shown.  The  best  and  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon method  is  to  draw  at  one-quarter-inch  scale 
the  different  elevations  of  the  rooms,  showing 
exactly  the  height,  width,  and  any  features  of 
unusual  arrangement.  Should  opposite  sides 
of  a  room  or  any  sides  be  similar,  "after  putting 
the  title  on  one  drawing,  note  under  it:  "Oppo- 
site, north,  south,  etc.,  sides  similar."  There 
is  usually  one  sheet  of  just  such  drawings  as 
this  to  accompany  the  regular  set  of  drawings. 
Since  plans  are  usually  submitted  to  competitive 
contractors,  there  is  not  the  chance  of  one  pro- 


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234 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  235 

posal  or  bid  being  lower  than  another  because 
certain  things  were  overlooked  or  purposely 
omitted. 

In  Pig.  14  we  see  drawings  of  elevations  and 
sections  of  various  portions  of  a  living  room  and 
dining  room,  giving  all  necessary  information. 

Pig.  15  illustrates  completely  the  drawings 
necessary  to  show  a  pantry  and  butler's  pantry. 

Full-Sizing.  After  the  contract  has  been 
awarded,  the  general  working  drawings  will 
have  to  be  supplemented  by  drawings  of  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  work  at  a  large  scale.  Usu- 
ally these  are  drawn  at  actual  or  full  size.  In 
order  to  have  your  profiles  and  outlines  made 
just  as  you  intended,  this  method  of  drawing 
all  parts  of  construction  at  the  actual  size  is 
imperative. 

Take  an  example.  You  wish  the  plate-rail 
in  the  dining  room  made  just  so.  Then  you  will 
have  to  draw  this  part  of  the  work  the  actual 
size.  If  you  do  not  do  this,  the  contractor  will 
put  in  a  plate-rail  of  a  stock  pattern;  that  is> 
he  will  select  some  pattern  that  he  can  buy  from 
a  planing  mill,  and  will  use  this.  It  is  the 
cheapest  way  to  do,  for  him;  therefore  you  can- 
not blame  him  for  saving  anything  he  can,  if 
the  exact  style  is  not  definitely  shown. 

In  full-sizing,  it  will  be  well  for  the  drafts- 
man to  be  familiar  with  the  usual  method  of 
doing  things,  making  his  details  practical  as  well 
as  indicating  the  profile.  The  cornice  should  be 
shown;  the  interior  finish;  the  method  of  mak- 


236  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

ing  the  window-frames;  all  unusual  woodwork; 
the  construction  of  the  beams  for  a  beamed  ceil- 
ing; all  sheet-metal  work,  such  as  gutters, 
cornices,  etc.;  all  stonework,  such  as  water-, 
tables,  window-sills,  and  door-step;  all  plaster 
work,  such  as  ornamental  cornices,  and  method 
of  supporting  under  unusual  conditions.  You 
will  hear  it  asked:  "Why  is  it  necessary  to  spend 
all  this  time  detailing,  when  the  contractor  or 
the  planing  mill  have  their  own  way  of  doing 
these  things!"  There  is  just  the  point.  They 
certainly  have  a  way  of  doing  things;  but  nat- 
urally their  way  is  the  cheapest  way;  therefore, 
give  them  details  of  how  you  want  this  work 
done,  and  see  that  it  is  done  your  way.  Dimen- 
sions on  full-size  details  are  unnecessary. 

Fig.  16  is  a  reproduction  of  a  sheet  of  full- 
size  details. 

A  word  might  be  said  as  to  the  method  of 
getting  out  these  details.  The  drawing  is  first 
made  on  detail  paper,  a  heavy  yellow  paper.  A 
soft  pencil  should  be  used,  as  it  makes  the  lines 
more  distinct  and  is  easily  changed  or  erased. 
After  the  drawing  is  completed  on  this  paper, 
then  use  a  cheap,  thin  paper,  and  trace  through, 
using  a  broad,  heavy  line  and  colored  crayon  for 
cross-sectioning  the  sections  of  the  work.  Yel- 
low is  generally  used  for  wood,  red  for  brick, 
green  for  stone,  blue  for  iron  or  steel,  and  brown 
for  terra-cotta.  A  second  tracing  is  also  made. 
Thus  we  have  three  copies  of  each  detail — one 
for  filing  in  the  office  for  future  reference,  and 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


237 


CEILIMC  BEAM 

Fig.  16.    A  Sheet  of  Full-Sized  Details 


238  AKCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

two  for  the  contractor.  One  of  the  copies  made 
on  tracing  paper  is  usually  kept  in  the  office, 
since  it  can  be  folded  up  to  a  convenient  size  and 
filed,  the  original  and  one  copy  on  thin  paper 
going  to  the  contractor. 

REPRODUCING  DRAWINGS 

The  question  of  the  method  of  reproducing 
drawings  is  an  important  one  as  to  cost  and 
time  consumed.  New  methods  are  being  adver- 
tised on  the  market  every  day. 

Blue-Printing.  The  blue-print  process  is  the 
commonest,  and  generally  speaking  the  cheap- 
est. There  is  a  chemically  prepared  paper  which 
is  sensitive  to  the  light.  The  paper  is  treated 
with  a  solution  of  citrate  of  iron,  ammonia,  and 
red  prussiate  of  potash,  and  is  placed  in  a  dark 
room  to  dry.  The  drawing  has  previously  been 
prepared  on  tracing  cloth  or  paper.  When  the 
blue-print  paper  is  dry,  place  the  drawing,  face 
down,  on  a  sheet  of  glass,  usually  held  in  a 
wooden  frame;  over  this,  lay  the  blue-print 
paper,  with  the  sensitive  side  down;  over  this, 
place  a  layer  or  two  of  soft  cloth  similar  to 
Canton  flannel,  and  over  this  place  a  board 
backing. 

Turn  the  frame  over  now,  and  expose  to  the 
sunlight  for  a  few  minutes,  depending  upon  the 
intensity  of  the  sunlight.  After  exposure, 
remove  the  blue-print  paper,  which  has  turned 
to  a  dark  bronze  color,  and  place  it  in  a  tank  of 
water.  Gradually  the  print  comes  out  in  white 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  239 

lines,  leaving  the  background  blue.  These  white 
lines  were  directly  under  the  ink  lines  of  your 
drawing,  and  the  sun  therefore  could  not  attack 
that  portion  of  the  paper.  Hence  the  water 
washed  off  the  blue-print  solution,  leaving  the 
white  paper. 

A  little  experience  will  soon  teach  how  long 
to  expose  in  different  kinds  of  weather.  Prints 
may  be  made  on  cloudy  days,  and  have  some- 
times been  made  even  during  a  mist.  The  expos- 
ure, of  course,  must  be  much  longer  on  such 
days.  The  prints  from  such  exposures  are  not 
so  clear,  distinct,  and  "sharp-cut"  as  those  made 
on  bright  days.  When  possible,  avoid  making 
blue-prints  on  dark  days,  if  you  expect  the  best 
results. 

Paper  for  blue-printing  can  be  procured 
ready  to  use,  from  dealers  all  over  the  country, 
at  a  nominal  cost.  This  is  machine-prepared, 
and  is  more  satisfactory  than  home-made. 

Blue-prints  are  hard  on  the  eyes,  and,  having 
a  blue  background,  cannot  be  dimensioned, 
noted,  or  to  any  great  extent  changed.  Should 
small  alterations  be  necessary  on  the  blue-print, 
use  a  solution  of  common  soda  and  water  with 
a  pen.  This  is  not  very  satisfactory,  but  in  cases 
where  changes  are  necessary  it  will  do. 

White-Printing.  From  working  drawings, 
white  prints  can  be  made.  This  kind  of  print 
is  just  the  reverse  of  the  blue-print.  Here  we 
have  blue  lines  on  a  white  background.  In  order 
to  make  white  prints,  a  negative  first  has  to  be 


240  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

made  from  the  drawing.  The  paper  used  for  the 
negatives  is  specially  prepared  and  exposed  and 
washed  in  the  same  way  as  blue-prints.  When 
washed  and  dry,  it  is  a  real  negative,  on  which 
all  pencil  lines  are  white  and  the  background  is 
black  so  as  to  exclude  the  sun — all  the  reverse 
of  the  drawing.  This  negative  is  then  used  by 
placing  it  over  regular  blue-print  paper.  The 
sun  passes  through  the  white  lines,  and  is 
excluded  from  the  rest  by  the  black  background. 
Upon  washing  the  blue-print  paper,  the  lines 
having  been  exposed  to  the  sun  are  changed  to 
blue ;  and  the  background,  not  having  the  sun  on 
it,  is  washed  off,  leaving  the  white  paper. 

This  process  makes  a  much  better  looking 
drawing  than  a  blue-print,  and  is  not  so  hard  on 
the  eyes.  The  cost  is  a  little  higher,  on  account 
of  the  negative ;  but  after  the  negative  is  made, 
the  cost  is  the  same  as  for  blue-prints. 

Aligraphy.  Another  process,  known  as 
Aligraphy,  has  been  patented.  By  it,  drawings 
can  be  reproduced  on  linen  or  paper,  and  the 
lines  are  practically  as  black  as  the  original. 
They  closely  resemble  etchings.  For  very  fine 
work,  this  process  makes  splendid  reproduc- 
tions; but  it  is  more  expensive  than  any  of  the 
processes  above  mentioned. 

Hectograph  Process.  Another  common 
method  of  reproducing  drawings  is  the  hecto- 
graph process.  This  consists  in  making  the 
drawings  with  suitable  aniline  inks,  and  then 
placing  them  face-down  on  a  gelatine  pad.  After 


AKCHITECTUEAL   DKAFTING  241 

being  in  contact  for  about  two  minutes,  they  are 
removed,  and  blank  paper  is  brought  in  contact 
with  the  pad,  being  in  turn  removed.  It  will  be 
found  to  give  a  complete  drawing  similar  to  the 
original  in  scale,  color,  etc.  Upwards  of  thirty- 
five  copies  may  be  taken  off,  depending  upon 
the  intensity  of  the  original. 

The  pad  may  be  made  as  follows :  1  part  of 
white  glue  to  5  parts  by  weight  of  glycerine. 
Soak  the  glue  over  night,  in  just  enough  water 
to  cover  it.  Bring  to  the  boiling  point  slowly, 
without  burning;  then  add  the  glycerine,  and 
thoroughly  mix.  Pour  into  a  shallow  pan; 
remove  all  air-bubbles  from  the  surface  with  a 
stiff  card;  and  allow  to  cool.  Before  using  each 
time,  wash  thoroughly  with  a  sponge  and  allow 
to  dry  partially  before  applying  the  drawing; 
also  wash  well  immediately  after  using,  to 
remove  all  traces  of  ink. 

The  proportions  may  be  varied  slightly  for 
different  climates.  A  cold  climate  will  require 
more  glycerine,  and  a  warm  climate  more  glue. 
The  pad  should  be  stiff  enough  to  resist  pressure 
from  the  fingers  when  firmly  pressed  upon  it. 

Other  additional  ingredients  are  sometimes 
used.  Perhaps  they  have  their  advantages ;  but 
the  mixture  as  described  has  been  used  very  suc- 
cessfully. Often,  in  very  hot  weather,  after  a 
pad  is  made,  it  may  seem  too  soft  to  work  well. 
In  such  a  case,  placing  the  pan  on  a  cake  of  ice 
will  harden  the  mixture  and  make  it  satisfac- 
tory. 


242  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

A  cheaper  pad  may  be  made  by  using  a  mix- 
ture of  a  special  clay  and  glycerine.  While  not 
giving  so  many  prints  as  the  glue  pad,  it  can 
be  used  more  economically  for  large  drawings. 
Hectograph  pencils  may  be  had  in  many  colors, 
which  are  used  for  making  full-size  details. 
These  drawings  are  copied  in  the  same  way  as 
the  regular  pen-and-ink  drawings. 

The  hectograph  process  is  gradually  gaining 
in  favor,  and  in  some  localities  it  is  used  exten- 
sively. It  has  several  features  to  commend  it : 

(1)  All  materials  can  be  represented  in  appropriate 
colors. 

(2)  Copies  are  very  cheap,  and  can  be  made  on  paper 
or  prepared  cloth. 

(3)  The  draftsman  finds  it  convenient  when  making 
revisions,  as  parts  of  the  drawing  can  be  cut  out  and  a 
correct    portion    inserted.     No    matter    how    badly   the 
drawing  is  cut  and  patched,  the  prints  are  perfect. 

(4)  In  assembling  different  drawings  on  a  sheet,  they 
may  be  shifted  at  will,  and  a  better  arrangement  secured. 

(5)  When  a  sheet  is  composed  of  small  drawings,  the 
draftsman  may  work  over  the  small  drawings  more  com- 
fortably than  if  compelled  to  work  on  a  large  sheet. 

The  hectograph  process,  however,  has  some 
drawbacks,  which  may  be  indicated  as  follows: 

(1)  Small  details  cannot  be  shown  so  clearly,  as  the 
lines  must  be  quite  heavy  if  a  number  of  prints   are 
required. 

(2)  The  drawings  fade  mor*  or  less  if  exposed  to  a 
bright  light,  but  they  are  permanent  enough  for  most 
work. 

(3)  Some  draftsmen  do  not  like  to  use  the  inks,  as 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  243 

they  are  sticky  and  soil  the  fingers.    This,  however,  should 
apply  only  to  the  inexperienced. 

Hectograph  inks  may  be  purchased  of  dealers 
everywhere,  in  all  colors.  Below  are  suggested 
colors  for  various  sections  of  materials : 

Purple — For  lines  in  general,  outlines,  profiles,  etc.; 
also  for  sections  of  plaster,  and  concrete. 

Red — For  dimension  lines,  and  for  sections  of  brick- 
work. 

Blue — For  iron,  steel,  flashing,  etc.,  in  section. 

Brown — For  sections  of  terra-cotta. 

Green — For  sections  of  stone  or  marble. 

Yellow — For  wood. 

For  the  blue-print  process,  the  drawing  to  be 
reproduced  is  preferably  done  on  tracing  cloth, 
on  the  rough  side,  in  black  ink.  Erasures  may 
be  made  on  this,  and  the  work  corrected;  but 
the  finished  drawing  has  to  be  complete  in  every 
respect,  as  every  line  is  reproduced  just  as 
drawn. 

For  the  hectograph  process,  we  shall  need  to 
make  the  lines  much  heavier,  and  may  use 
colored  inks.  Mistakes  cannot  be  erased,  but 
are  cut  out,  and  a  new  piece  of  paper  placed  over 
the  hole,  and  the  drawing  continued. 

Tracing  cloth  makes  the  most  satisfactory 
material  all  around  for  the  original  drawing.  It 
is  translucent  or  semi-transparent,  will  make 
good  prints  by  almost  any  process,  and  is  much 
more  desirable  than  paper  for  filing  away  and 
for  constant  use  in  the  drafting  room. 

The  use  of  colored  inks  is  not  to  be  recom- 


244  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

mended.  They  make  the  tracing  look  very 
pretty,  but  they  print  very  poorly,  some  shades 
of  green  being  hardly  visible  on  the  blue-print. 
Red  reproduces  very  faintly,  and  when  this  color 
is  used  for  dimension  lines  they  should  be  heavy. 
Black  is  the  most  serviceable  color  to  use.  In 
steel  detailing,  the  entire  drawing  is  done  in 
black — even  dimension  lines. 

ARCHITECTURAL  FORMS 

Having  considered  the  general  method  in  the 
drawing  of  architectural  plans,  we  shall  now 
consider  some  of  the  general  forms  employed  to 
represent  different  parts  of  the  work. 

Conventional  Forms  and  Symbols.  First 
there  must  be  some  adopted  form  for  represent- 
ing materials.  It  will  be  found  throughout  the 
country,  that  each  architectural  firm  has  its  own 
architectural  forms  and  symbols.  This  is  rather 
confusing,  since  it  requires  a  draftsman  chang- 
ing offices,  or  Building  Departments  checking 
plans,  to  become  familiar  with  the  symbols  as 
used  by  each  office. 

In  Plate  A  are  given  some  general  forms  for 
representing  materials. 

Fig.  1  represents  brick.  A  section  of  a  brick 
wall  should  be  sectioned  as  shown,  by  parallel 
lines  at  45  degrees,  slanting  down  to  the  left.  It 
might  be  well  to  repeat  here  what  has  been  said 
about  the  use  of  colored  inks  for  drawing. 
Except  for  dimension  lines,  avoid  the  use  of 
colors.  The  materials  may  be  indicated  as  shown 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


245 


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SOL.ID    PL-ASTCK    PART- 
ITION -  l°LASTEfZ£.D. 


Plate  A.    Conventional  Symbols  for  Representing  Materials  on  Ar- 
chitectural Drawings. 


246  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

by  varying  the  texture  of  the  line  and  also  by 
different  forms  of  dotting. 

Fig.  2 — We  use  alternating  lines — solid  and 
dashes — at  45  degrees  to  represent  rubble  stone 
such  as  is  found  in  most  basements. 

Fig.  3 — We  use  solid  lines  running  at  45 
degrees  to  each  other  and  in  opposite  directions, 
to  represent  cut-stone  work  such  as  sills  for 
windows  and  doors,  chimney  caps,  and  any  kind 
of  finished  or  dressed  stone. 

Fig.  4  represents  concrete.  This  symbol  is 
composed  of  small,  wavy  lines,  with  occasional 
triangular  shapes  to  represent  the  stone.  This 
symbol  may  be  used  to  represent  the  concrete 
such  as  would  be  used  in  a  solid  wall  or 
reinforced  concrete  for  floors  and  other  similar 
constructions. 

Fig.  5  illustrates  the  method  of  showing 
terra-cotta.  This  is  the  same  as  for  brick,  with 
the  lines  running  in  the  opposite  direction. 

For  representing  an  interior  partition  of  a 
frame  building,  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  6  is 
perhaps  the  most  satisfactory.  Plaster  is  repre- 
sented by  parallel  lines  to  opposite  sides  of  the 
wall. 

Very  often,  in  fireproof  buildings,  partitions 
are  built  of  hollow  tile  and  plastered  on  both 
sides.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  method  of  indicating 
such  a  partition. 

Where  a  brick  wall  is  furred  on  the  inside  and 
then  plastered,  we  use  the  ordinary  symbol  for 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  247 

the  brick  wall,  and  show  the  plaster  away  from 
the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  8. 

Very  often,  instead  of  using  the  partition  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  it  will  be  built  up  solid  of  plaster 
2  inches  thick  with  a  layer  of  expanded  metal 
imbedded.  This  partition  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
It  will  be  found  a  very  satisfactory  partition, 
requiring  less  floor  space,  and  equal  in  every  way 
to  any  other  fireproof  partition. 

On  the  basement  plan,  various  lines  of  pipe 
should  be  shown.  There  should  be  a  porous  tile 
drain,  in  damp  soils,  all  around  the  outside  of 
the  basement  walls,  at  the  footing  line.  Such 
drains  are  constructed  of  porous  farm  tile,  laid 
with  butt  joints  and  no  cementing  of  any  kind. 
The  tile  being  porous,  the  water  in  the  soil  perco- 
lates through  the  walls  of  the  tile,  and  is  carried 
away.  These  drains  are  indicated  as  shown  in 
Plate  B. 

For  the  sewer  connections  inside  the  build- 
ing, and  extending  at  least  six  feet  outside  the 
basement  wall,  the  pipe  should  be  cast-iron  and 
have  calked  joints.  Such  pipes  are  shown  on 
the  basement  plan  as  in  Plate  B.  Connected  to 
this  cast-iron  pipe  outside  the  basement  wall,  a 
vitrified  tile  drain  should  be  used,  with  cemented 
joints.  Such  pipe  is  also  shown  in  Plate  B.  All 
these  pipe  lines  should  be  shown  in  black  on  the 
drawing. 

There  are  certain  lines  used  in  a  drawing  for 
reference,  such  as  axis  lines — that  is,  when  a 
room  or  building  is  symmetrically  arranged 


248  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 


POQOUS     TILE.   DQA/NS. 


/GO/V    PIPE  DQA/NS. 


P/PE. 


THE.  ABOVE.  SHOULD  BE  SHOWN   WITH  &LACK L/NES. 


AXIS    LIN ES     (BED). 


BUILDING    LINES     (Q£D). 


DOTTED    L./NES   FOG  GENE.QAL 

/&-0" 


< 

D/MENS/OM  L/NES   (USUALLY  RED  WITH 

BLACK  AQ&O 


Plate  B.    Conventional  Methods  of  Representing  Drain  and  Sewer 
Pipe,  Axis  Lines,  Building  Lines,  Dimension  Lines,  etc. 


AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  _ 


around  a  center  line.  In  order  to  make  such 
axis  lines  distinct  from  general  lines,  they  are 
usually  made  as  shown  in  Plate  B. 

When  there  are  offsets  or  projections  on  a 
wall,  such  work  is  measured  from  certain  lines 
established  as  building  lines  (see  Plate  B). 
Usually  the  outside  wall  line  of  the  first  story  is 
taken  as  this  reference  line;  and  the  basement 
wall  line,  the  second-story  line,  the  eave  line, 
etc.,  are  all  measured  as  projecting  from  this 
line. 

All  dimension  lines  are  to  be  noted  as  shown 
on  this  same  plate,  in  which  the  arrow-heads 
are  black,  the  connecting  line  is  red,  and  the 
figures  are  in  black,  always  above  this  line.  This 
is  the  best  practice,  though  sometimes  dimen- 
sions are  placed  in  the  center  of  the  line,  the  line 
being  stopped  to  allow  the  figures  to  be  inserted. 
This  method  takes  more  time  and  is  not  so 
practical,  since  the  dimension  line  is  broken  and 
in  some  cases  there  might  be  a  dispute  as  to  just 
how  much  the  dimension  is  intended  to  include. 

For  lighting,  there  are  standard  symbols 
adopted  by  the  National  Electrical  Contractors' 
Association  of  the  United  States.  These  are 
published  on  a  card  convenient  for  reference,  and 
copies  may  be  had  by  applying  to  the  Secretary. 
Another  form  of  symbols  has  been  adopted  by 
the  Boston  Society  of  Architects,  copies  of  which 
may  also  be  had  on  application.  The  latter  sym- 
bols are  shown  on  Plate  C.  These  are  given  for 
convenience  in  laying  out  plans,  and  are  not 


250 


AECHITECTUEAL   DEAFTING 


This  Specification   is  based  upon  the.  </a*   of  the.  following  symbol* 

and  of   such    others    as    may    6e    usdd    and  explained  an  the   Plant. 

£LEGTGIC 

QAS 

COMBINATION 

CEILING     OUTLET 

yfv^ 
\1/ 

+r 

& 

WALL    OUTLET 

i  /fy 
|  \u 

1^,2. 

1  Op  . 

FLOOR   OUTLET 
1  Ligh+: 

0 

• 

a 

BASE    OUTLET 

ga 

'-*- 

-H- 

SWITCH 

-C--            -  n 

otted  Lino.  jAo*vt  S**it*,t» 

PUSH  BUTTON         @             BANK  OF  BUTTON  5   E°3 

BELL                           §            ANNUNCIATOR        r^\ 

CABINET               f*^         5PE.AKING  TUBE         \-$ 

HOUSE  TELEPHONE,   r^l        PUBLIC  T£LEPHONE  jft. 

HEIGHTS    OF  5TOBIES  -  TOP  TO   TOP               £ 

I*T             FT       IN.       2."°-      .      FT         IN-        3"°               FT         IN.        4- 
5r"            FT.        IN        €>™              FT          IH           7T"                T.         I*          8 
9™          FT.       IN.       tOr"             FT         IN.        /I"               FXT         ,N.     \2 

ITT         FT     //v. 
«•*            FT.        IN. 
r"            FT        IN. 
r«           FT.        //V. 

HEIGHTS     OF  C£NTCR    OF   WALL    OUTLETS. 

i/n/djf    of-harn'/je  Jptci/ScJ. 

L/V//VG  GOO"MS-      S-&"            OFF/CES-              S'-  O" 
CHAMBE.f3S-              5-O"           COfZRIDOQS-     6'~3" 
HEIGHT  OF  5W/TCHES~t/»/ess   otherwise.    spe.cifi*,</  -  4-'-O' 

Plate  C.    Standard  Symbols  for  Representing  Fixtures,  Electric 
Outlets,  etc. 

Adopted  by  the  Boston  Society  of  Architects. 


ARCHITECTUBAL   DEAFTING 


251 


intended  to  be  complete  in  every  respect.  It  is 
essential  to  show  the  location  of  the  light  outlets 
in  all  rooms;  also  whether  they  are  to  be  gas, 
or  electric,  or  a  combination  of  both.  Push- 
buttons, bells,  and  telephones  are  also  indicated. 
If  these  locations  are  not  shown,  the  contractor 
for  this  work  will  naturally  place  them  in  a  posi- 


I       75  *       jo 


Fig.  17.    Conventional  Symbols  for  Heating  Apparatus. 
A — Steam  or  Hot-Water  Radiator;   B — Hot- Air  Register. 

tion  requiring  the  least  amount  of  pipe,  wire, 
etc.  Therefore  show  all  of  these  fixtures,  and 
there  can  then  be  no  dispute  as  to  the  true  intent 
of  the  plans  and  specifications. 

For  the  heating,  about  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  show  the  location  of  the  registers  or  radiators, 
marking  the  number  of  square  feet  of  radiation 
on  each  radiator.  The  usual  method  is  shown  in 
Fig.  17  (A)  for  steam  or  hot  water,  and  in  Fig. 
17  (B)  for  hot  air.  The  specifications  should 


Fig.   18. 


Conventional  Representation   of  Flues  for  Air  Supply 
and  Ventilation. 


252 


AECHITECTUEAL    DEAFTING 


describe  the  kind  of  heat,  and  go  into  detail 
about  pipe,  fittings,  etc. 

In  hospitals,  public  buildings,  and  school- 
houses,  where  there  are  a  number  of  occupants 
in  each  room,  it  will  be  necessary  to  furnish  a 
fresh-air  supply,  also  a  vent  flue.  These  are  all 
figured,  and  should  be  located  conveniently. 


Fig.  19.    Sketch  Plan  Showing  Arrangement  of  Furniture. 

The  method  of  figuring  the  correct  location  for 
such  work  will  be  considered  under  "Heating 
and  Ventilating."  The  conventional  method  of 
showing  flues  for  air  supply  and  ventilation  is 
showrn  in  Fig.  18. 

For  furniture,  certain  conventional  forms  are 
used,  and  shown  on  all  plans.  The  furniture  of 
the  bedrooms  and  bathrooms  is  usually  laid  out 
on  the  plans,  since  these  are  usually  made  as 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  253 

small  as  practicable;  therefore  the  furniture 
and  fittings  are  laid  out  to  make  sure  that  there 
will  be  room  to  get  them  all  in.  This  applies  to 
the  cheaper  classes  of  houses,  for  in  the  larger 
and  more  expensive  residences  the  rooms  are 
always  amply  large  to  accommodate  all  the  fur- 
niture and  fittings  desirable.  In  Fig.  19,  a  bath- 
room and  bedrooms  are  laid  out,  the  furniture 
being  indicated  by  numbers,  (1)  representing 
the  lavatory  or  wash-bowl,  (2)  the  closet, 
(3)  the  bathtub,  (4)  the  bed,  (5)  the  chiffonier, 
(6)  the  dresser,  and  (7)  a  table  or  writing  desk. 
See  also  Fig.  20. 

Sometimes  a  client  has  furniture  he  wishes 
to  put  into  a  new  home.  It  will  be  found  very 
convenient  to  get  the  dimensions  of  such  furni- 
ture, and  cut  out  pieces  of  cardboard  the  exact 
sizes  of  this  furniture  according  to  the  scale  of 
the  plan.  Then  lay  them  on  the  plan  as  drawn, 
and  see  how  they  will  fit  wall  spaces,  nooks,  etc. 
By  this  method,  pieces  can  be  arranged,  and  it 
will  very  soon  be  shown  whether  or  not  the 
rooms  will  accommodate  the  furniture.  This 
will  be  found  very  convenient  in  all  classes  of 
work  (see  Fig.  20). 

Below  are  given  the  dimensions  of  some  of 
the  common  pieces  of  furniture.  These  sizes 
will  vary  somewhat,  but  in  general  they  will 
be  accurate  enough  in  laying  out  work. 

Dining  Tables — 3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  wide,  and  to  extend 
to  10  ft.  to  12  ft.  by  extra  leaves,  and  2  ft.  5  in.  high. 
Writing  Tables— 2  ft.  6  in.  high. 


254 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


Fig.   20.    Plan   Showing   Method   of  Laying   Out  Furniture  and 

Bugs. 

Carving  Tables— 3  ft.  high. 

Ordinary  Tables— 2  ft.  6  in.  high. 

Beds,  Single — 3  ft.  6  in.  wide ; 

Beds,  Three-quarter — 4  ft.  to  4  ft.  6  in.  wide ; 

Beds,  Double — 4  ft.  6  in.  to  5  ft.  wide. 

All  beds  should  be  6  ft.  8  in.  long  inside. 
Dressers— 1  ft.  6  in.  to  2  ft.  by  3  ft.  5  in. 
Couches— 2  ft.  6  in.  by  6  ft.  8  in. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  255 

Chiffoniers— 2  ft.  by  3  ft.,  and  4  ft.  6  in.  high. 

Sideboards  vary  according  to  design,  4  ft.  to  6  ft.  long, 
and  from  2  ft.  to  2  ft.  2  in.  deep. 

Pianos,  Upright,  vary,  being  usually  3  ft.  3  in.  by  6  ft. 
6  in.  long,  and  4  ft.  to  4  ft.  9  in.  high. 

Bookcases — 10  in.  to  16  in.  deep,  any  length  and  height. 

Chairs  and  Seats — Usually  17  in.  high  at  front,  16  in.  at 
back,  and  the  seat  is  usually  17  in.  high  by  16  in.  inside ;  the 
back,  from  1  ft.  6  in.  to  1  ft.  8  in.  high,  slightly  inclined 
at  the  top. 

For  plumbing  fixtures,  consult  any  plumbing  cata- 
logue. The  washstand  varies,  18  in.  deep  by  2  ft.  long 
being  about  the  minimum.  The  bathtub  varies  from  3  ft. 
6  in.  to  4  ft.  6  in.  long,  about  1  ft.  11  in.  high  above  the 
floor,  and  2  ft.  wide  across  the  rim.  Closets  are  about 
1  ft.  4  in.  wide,  and  about  2  ft.  from  the  wall. 

Kanges— 26  in.  to  30  in.  by  36  in.  by  42  in. 

Ranges,  Gas — 26  in.  by  34  in. 

Lunch  Counters — Height,  3  ft.  3  in. 
Stool,  2  ft.  2  in. 
Counter  projects  9  in.  and  is  2  ft. 

2  in.  wide. 

Foot-rest,  7  in.  high  and  9  in.  from 
counter. 

Urinals — 26  in.  to  30  in.,  center  to  center. 

Rugs— 4  ft.  6  in.  by  7  ft.  6  in.  up  to  11  ft.  3  in.  by  15  ft. 

The  above  dimensions  are  only  general,  but 
will  be  of  assistance  in  laying  out  the  furniture 
of  a  house. 

MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

There  will  be  found  a  great  variety  of  materi- 
als for  the  construction  of  buildings,  nowadays. 
In  some  localities,  one  material  will  be  used 
more  than  others;  for  instance,  in  the  vicinity 


256 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


L-v 

—  -—  ~~ 

CONCfttTE.. 


Fig.  21.    Elevation  of  a  Porch. 
See  also  Figs.  22  and  23. 


AKCHITECTUKAL   DEAFTING 


257 


-14=  • 


'i>ALLJ 
<--S-\ 


'-•-  s  ;.- .-«'.  i    )-"«.-:-.v  •' 

^ '.'••  oo Nc'ac-jc.  Ll^'''C.<f-  i 

'"  i' -  •  •     •  ' 


Fig.  22.    Porch  of  Fig.  21  Fig.  23.     Porch  of  Fig.  21 

Detailed  for  Stone  Construction.      Detailed  for  Wood  Construction. 


258  ARCHITECTUEAL   DEAFTING 

of  a  stone  quarry,  stone  will  usually  be  cheaper 
than  anything  else — even  in  some  cases  cheaper 
than  wood.  Should  your  client  be  interested  in 
a  brick  concern,  brick  would  undoubtedly  be 
used.  In  a  locality  where  timber  is  cheap,  that 
material  would  be  largely  employed. 

For  the  cheaper  class  of  work,  we  find  wood 
to  be  the  cheapest  material,  although,  within  the 
past  ten  years  or  so,  wood  has  advanced  in  price 
at  a  great  rate.  The  kind  of  wood  used  will 
vary  with  each  locality.  In  some  sections — espe- 
cially the  South — yellow  pine  will  be  used;  in 
our  Western  States,  fir  and  local  varieties  will 
be  selected.  An  architect  in  a  new  locality, 
therefore,  should  become  familiar  with  the  local 
woods  used,  and  should  govern  his  work,  such 
as  spans  of  beams,  interior  finish,  etc.,  by  these 
conditions.  The  use  of  terra-cotta  for  the  facing 
of  masonry  walls,  for  ornamental  courses,  cor- 
nices, and  window-sills,  is  quite  common.  Since 
this  is  a  product  made  of  clay,  properly  mixed, 
moulded,  and  burned,  it  can  be  treated  as  plainly 
or  as  elaborately  as  the  design  of  the  building 
warrants.  Terra-cotta,  of  course,  is  used  only 
with  masonry,  such  as  brick,  stone,  or  concrete. 

Fig.  21  shows  the  elevation  of  a  porch,  and 
Fig.  22  shows  this  porch  detailed  for  stone  con- 
struction; while  Fig.  23  shows  the  same  porch 
detailed  for  wood. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


259 


SHADES  AND  SHADOWS 

In  order  to  prepare  sketches  and  make  them 
attractive,  a  brief  treatment  of  Shades  and 
Shadows  will  be  taken  up,  the  main  general  rules 
and  principles  being  explained,  which  may  be 
applied  to  ordinary  architectural  drawing. 

By  the  use  of  shades  and  shadows,  very  im- 
portant effects  are  produced.  The  general  pro- 
portions of  the  cornice,  for  example,  are  empha- 
sized by  using  shadows.  The  relative  amount 
of  window  area  to  wall  area  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  use  of  shadows. 

The  light  is  always  assumed  as  coming  over 
the  left  shoulder  of  the  person  looking  at  the 
drawing,  and  at  an  angle  as  explained  later. 
This  assumption  is  always  made,  being  merely  a 
conventional  or  customary  way  of  considering 


Fig.  24.  Fig.  25. 

Illustrating  Conventional  Method  of  Considering  Bays  of  Light  in 
Architectural  Drafting. 

the  light.  The  idea  intended  is  to  produce  the 
same  effect  on  a  drawing  that  the  sun  in  this 
one  position  would  produce  on  the  building. 
While  the  sun  would  actually  produce  a  shadow 
-On  one  side  of  the  building  at  one  time,  and  on 
another  side  at  another  time,  in  architectural 


260 

drawing  this  variation  is  not  shown.  No  matter 
what  elevation  or  side  of  the  building  is  being 
considered,  the  light  is  always  from  the  same 
direction. 

Thus  we  see  that  in  Figs.  24  and  25  the  sun 
really  would  make  one  side  always  in  shadow, 
but  we  do  not  so  consider  it.  In  Fig.  24  we 
see  the  side  A  is  in  sunlight,  and  the  side  B  is 
in  shade.  Looking  now  at  Fig.  25,  we  see  side 
B  in  sunlight,  and  C,  which  was  the  rear  end, 
now  in  shade.  This  is  the  conventional  method 
of  considering  the  rays  of  light  for  architectural 
drawings.  No  matter  what  elevations  or  draw- 
ings are  considered,  or  how  many  of  the  same 
building  on  the  same  sheet,  the  direction  of  the 
rays  of  light  is  fixed. 

Perhaps  it  will  make  the  understanding  of 
this  subject  clearer  if  we  define  the  terms  shade 
and  shadow.  That  portion  of  a  building  or 
drawing  is  said  to  be  in  "shade"  which  is  turned 
away  from  the  assumed  rays  of  light;  or,  it 
receives  no  rays  of  light,  in  contrast  to  the  sides 
which  are  in  light  or  upon  which  the  light  falls. 

If  a  body  is  placed  between  the  light  and  a 
plane  upon  which  the  rays  might  fall,  such  a 
body  will  prevent  a  portion  of  the  rays  from 
striking  the  plane,  thereby  causing  a  shadow 
upon  the  plane. 

All  rays  of  light  are  assumed  as  parallel  and 
considered  as  straight  lines. 

The  rays  of  light  are  assumed  as  coming  over 
the  left  shoulder,  or  sloping  downward  and 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


261 


backward.  This  is  the  diagonal  of  a  cube.  The 
projections  of  this  diagonal  in  the  vertical  plane 
and  in  a  horizontal  plane  are  at  45  degrees,  while 
the  true  angle  of  the  diagonal  with  the  plane  is 
slightly  less  than  35  degrees  16  minutes.  If  we 
assume  the  side  of  the  cube  as  1,  then  the  true 
length  of  this  diagonal  is  nearly  one  and  three- 
quarters.  In  Fig.  26,  we  see  the  cube  and  the 
diagonal  drawn  as  a  heavy  line  with  an  arrow- 


TT* 

I-i- 

1*- 

5 

'oint  in   Space 

\ 

__::y5'i«do* 

X  * 

of 

ig.  26.     Drawing  Showing  As- 
sumed  Direction  of  Light. 


Pom-t- 


Fig.   28.    Elevation    of    Point 
and  Shadow. 


of 
Shadow 


Point-* 


,T 
il 


Plan  of  Point  in  Space 
and  Plane. 


Fig.  29. 
Shadow  of  a  Point  in  Space. 


Fig.  27.    Elevation  and  Plan  of 
Cube  of  Fig.  26. 


262 


head  indicating  the  direction  of  the  light.  Fig. 
27  shows  the  elevation  and  plan  of  the  same 
cube. 

The  shadow  of  a  point  is  where  the  ray  of 
light  surrounding  the  point  intersects  the  plane 
upon  which  the  shadow  falls.  In  Fig.  28,  we 
see  the  light  surrounding  the  point,  and  inter- 
secting the  plane,  giving  the  shadow  of  the  point 
upon  the  plane.  The  shadow  is  located  as  far 
down  and  as  far  to  the  right  of  the  point  in 
space  as  the  point  is  from  the  surface  or  plane 
upon  which  its  shadow  falls.  Fig.  29  shows  the 
plan  of  the  point,  its  distance  from  the  plane, 
and  the  plane. 


x-Lin« 


o.V) 


Line  in  | 


II 


Fig.  30.    Elevation  of  Line  and      Fig.  31.    Flan  of  Line  in  Space 
Shadow.  and  Plane. 

Shadow  of  a  Line  Parallel  to  Plane  of  Shadow. 

The  shadow  of  a  straight  line  in  space  is  the 
intersection  of  the  light  surrounding  this  line 
with  the  plane  of  shadow.  By  casting  the  shad- 
ows of  the  extremities  of  the  line  and  connecting 
these  points  of  shadows,  we  have  the  shadow  of 
the  line.  All  points  of  the  line  in  space  will 
cast  shadows  upon  the  plane  as  far  down  and  as 
far  to  the  right  as  the  point  is  from  the  plane. 


AECHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


263 


If  the  line  is  parallel  to  the  plane,  the  shadow 
will  be  equal  in  length  and  parallel  to  the  line 
itself.  See  Fig.  30  for  an  elevation,  and  Fig.  31 
for  the  plan  of  the  line  and  plane. 

If  the  line  in  space  is  not  a  straight  line,  then 
the  shadow  of  the  line  may  be  found  by  casting 
the  shadows  of  any  number  of  points  on  the 
line,  and  connecting  these.  The  greater  the 
number  of  points  of  shadows  cast,  the  greater 
will  be  the  accuracy  of  the  work.  In  Fig.  32 

^PUne 

^v 


Plan  of  Angle' 


C.  L.  t  VAT  i  ON  PUAN 

Fig.  32.  Fig.  33. 

Shadow  of  an  Irregular  Shape    which  is  Parallel  to   Plane   of 

Shadow. 

we  see  the  shadow  of  an  angle  or  L-shape  cast 
on  the  plane  of  projection;  Fig.  33  shows  the 
plan  of  the  angle. 

The  shadow  of  a  straight  line  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  upon  which  the  shadow  falls,  is  a 
straight  line  at  45  degrees,  no  matter  what  the 
outline  of  the  surface  is  upon  which  the  shadow 
falls  (see  Figs.  34,  35,  and  36). 

The  shadow  of  a  straight  line  parallel  to  the 
plane  upon  which  the  shadow  falls,  is  an  irregu- 


264 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


lar  line  giving  the  true  outline  of  the  surface 
(see  Fig.  37). 

The  shadow  of  a  perpendicular  line  on  a  roof 
is  therefore  a  line  which  gives  the  true  slope  of 
the  roof,  since  the  line  is  parallel  to  the  plane, 
and  therefore  casts  a  shadow  the  true  shape  of 
the  surface  upon  which  it  falls. 


P/an 


Si  DC. 

Fig.  34.  Fig.  35. 

Shadow  of  a  Line  which  is  Perpendicular  to     lane  of  Shadow. 


Fig.    36.    Showing    Shadow   of 

a  Line  Perpendicular  to 

Plane  of  Shadow. 


Fig.  37.    Showing  Shadow  of  a 
Line  Parallel  to  Plane  of 
Shadow  on  a  Moulded 
Surface. 


The  shadow  of  a  straight  line  inclined  to  the 
plane  upon  which  the  shadow  falls,  is  a  straight 


AKCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 


265 


Fig.  38     Shadow  of  a  Line  Inclined  to  Plane  of  Shadow. 


PLAN 


Fig.  39.    Shadows  of  a  Square  and  a  Circle  Parallel  to  Plane  of 

Shadow. 


266 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


line  connecting  the  shadows  of  the  ends  of  the 
line  (see  Fig.  38). 

As  in  the  case  of  a  line  parallel  to  the  plane 
upon  which  the  shadow  falls,  the  shadow  is  equal 
in  length  and  parallel  to  the  line,  so  it  is  with 
surfaces — the  square,  rectangle,  octagon,  etc. 
If  parallel  to  the  plane  of  shadows,  the  shadow 


\ 


\ 


:d 


\ 


'-i 


\ 

'   \ 
xv  \ 


Fig.  40.    Shadows  of  a  Square  and  Circle  Perpendicular  to  Plane  of 

Shadow. 

will  be  equal  in  size  and  shape  to  the  figure  (see 
Fig.  39). 

A  square  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
shadow  will  cast  a  diamond-shaped  shadow,  for 
two  of  the  lines  are  parallel  to  the  plane,  and 
two  are  perpendicular  to  the  plane  (see  Fig.  40). 


AECHITECTUKAL   DEAFTING 


267 


Having  stated  a  few  principles  of  casting 
shadows,  these  will  be  applied  to  a  few  common 
examples. 

Take  an  example  of  a  brick  projecting  from 
a  wall  (Fig.  41).  We  apply  the  principles  as 


Fig.  41.    Shadows  of  Projections  from  Plane  of  Shadow. 


PLAN 
Fig.  42.    Illustrating  Principles  of  Shadows. 

stated,  to  each  edge  of  the  brick.    The  top,  bot- 
tom, and  side  faces  of  the  brick  are  perpendicu- 


268 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


lar  to  the  plane,  therefore  the  shadows  will  be 
rectangular  in  shape. 

Figs.  42  and  43  show  a  further  application 
of  the  foregoing  principles. 


SECTION 


Fig.  43.    Illustrating  Principles  of  Shadows. 

Plate  D  shows  the  shadows  as  cast  upon  an 
Order  of  architecture,  illustrating  also  how 
much  clearer  the  drawing  is  when  it  has  the 
shadows  worked  out  on  it. 

The  above  principles  will  give  a  general 
understanding  of  the  subject. 

DETAILS  OP  CONSTRUCTION 

It  is  essential  to  know  the  usual  method  of 
detailing  different  portions  of  the  building.  For 
the  clear  understanding  of  some  of  the  impor- 
tant parts  of  a  building,  there  have  been  pre- 
pared some  typical  details.  The  reader,  having 
become  familiar  with  the  details  shown,  can 
adapt  them  to  any  sort  of  building. 

Cornice.  The  cornice  is  the  projection  at  the 
top  of  the  building,  made  more  or  less  elaborate. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  cornices — the  box 
cornice,  as  shown  in  Fig.  44,  and  the  open  cor- 
nice, as  shown  in  Fig.  45  (a  and  b).  Referring 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


269 


to  Fig.  44,  there  is  the  crown-mould  A,  the  fascia 
B;  the  planceer  or  soffit  C;  the  lookout  D;  the 


»/l1?C  BS-ACft  3 


Fig.  44.    Box  Cornice. 


brackets  E ;  the  dentil  course  F.  Not  all  cornices 
have  all  these  parts.  The  plainer  ones  may  be 
without  the  brackets  E  and  the  dentils  F;  or 


270  AKCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 

more  elaborate  cornices  may  have  more  mem- 
bers. The  closed  cornice  always  has  the  gutter 
built  into  the  upper  members ;  the  open  cornice 


Fig.  45a.    Open  Cornice. 

has  a  hanging  gutter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45  (a 
orb). 

The  gutter,  in  the  best  work,  is  made  of  cop- 
per; in  ordinary  work,  of  galvanized  iron;  and 
in  the  cheapest  class  of  work,  tin  is  used.  The 
durability  of  these  materials  is  in  the  order 
named,  the  copper  wearing  usually  the  life  of 
the  building.  Galvanized  and  tin  gutters  have 
to  be  kept  well  painted;  but  even  with  good 
care,  the  life  of  these  two  materials  is  limited. 

One  important  feature  of  a  good  gutter  is 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


271 


to  have  the  metal  run  well  up  under  the  roofing 
material,  and  out  over  the  crown-mould.  This 
keeps  any  water  from  overflowing  up  under  the 
roof  if  the  gutter  becomes  choked  with  ice  or 
leaves.  The  gutter  should  be  well  pitched  or 
graded  to  the  outlets.  The  gutter  outlets  are 
in  turn  connected  to  leaders  or  down-spouts. 
These  down-spouts  are  made,  usually,  of  the 


CALV 


Pig.  45b.    Type  of  Open  Cornice  Known  as  Close-Eave  Cornice. 


same  material  as  the  gutter.  The  shape  of  the 
down-spouts  may  be  either  round  or  rectangu- 
lar; a  very  common  form  is  made  of  corrugated 
iron,  either  round  or  rectangular.  The  gutter, 
especially  if  a  hanging  gutter,  must  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  roof  at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
feet,  by  means  of  some  sort  of  hanger.  The 
down-spouts  must  be  securely  fastened  to  the 
wall  by  some  approved  method. 

Floor  Construction.     The  floor  construction 
does  not  vary  much  (see  Fig.  .46).    In  this  figure 


272 


ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


we  have  the  usual  construction  and  method  of 
support  at  the  second  or  upper  floor  line.  The 
joists  must  be  of  ample  size,  not  only  to  carry 


Fig.  46.    Common  Floor  Construction  at  Second-Floor  Line. 

the  load  safely,  but  to  be  stiff  enough  not  to  sag 
or  vibrate  under  a  load,  since  this  would  crack 
the  plastering  or  the  ceiling  below.  On  the 
joists  is  laid  an  under-floor,  usually  of  boards 
y8  inch  thick,  laid  diagonally  at  45  degrees  with 
the  joists,  and  spiked  with  two  nails  on  every 


AECHITECTUEAL   DKAFTING 


273 


joist.  The  flooring  laid  in  this  manner  braces 
the  building,  and  resists  any  tendency  to  twist. 
In  the  best  construction,  we  use  some  sort 
of  deafening  material  between  the  upper  and 
under  floor,  to  deaden  sound.  The  upper  floor 
is  of  maple,  oak,  or  yellow  pine  of  matched  or 
tongued-and-grooved  boards,  with  the  boards 
parallel  to  one  side  of  the  room.  This  floor  is 
blind-nailed;  that  is,  the  nails  are  driven  in  at 
the  intersection  of  the  tongue  and  the  vertical 
edge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47.  This  keeps  all  nail- 


Fig.  47.    Section  Showing  Blind-Nailing. 

heads  hidden  from  view.  The  upper  floor  should 
be  thoroughly  kiln-dried — that  is,  dried  arti- 
ficially to  drive  out  the  greater  part  of  the 
moisture,  so  that  when  it  is  finally  laid,  it  will 
not  dry  out  in  the  building  and  open  up  ugly 
cracks.  For  this  reason  the  finished  floor  should 
not  be  laid  until  the  plastering  is  thoroughly 
dry.  The  under  side  of  the  joists  is  lathed  and 
plastered. 

Around  openings,  chimneys,  or  stair-wells, 
the  joists  are  supported  at  the  ends  by  means 
of  a  header,  or  a  joist  running  at  right 
angles  to  them,  to  which  they  are  securely 


274  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

spiked;  or  they  may  rest  on  top  of  a  ribbon  or 
%-inch  board  let  into  the  studding,  the  con- 
struction being  similar  to  the  support  for  the 
ceiling  joists  as  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

At  the  first-floor  line,  we  have  to  build  a  sill 
upon  the  basement  wall;  this  sill  forms  a  sup- 
port for  the  joist,  and  also  gives  a  nailing  for 
the  studding.  The  method  is  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  48. 

Lath  and  Plaster.  The  interior  finish  of 
almost  all  residence  work  is  lath  and  plaster. 
The  walls,  if  of  wood,  and  the  ceiling,  are  lathed 
with  good,  sound  lath,  free  from  blue  sap  or 
bark,  and  of  white  pine  or  spruce.  They  should 
be  spaced  at  least  14  inch  apart,  and  the  plaster 
pressed  firmly  onto  them  so  as  to  make  sure 
that  there  will  be  a  good  key  for  holding  the 
plaster.  All  lath  on  vertical  walls  should  be 
put  on  horizontally,  and  there  should  not  be  a 
vertical  joint  of  more  than  18  inches  between 
any  series  of  laths.  Under  no  consideration 
should  lath  be  put  on  a  vertical  wall  other  than 
horizontally.  In  hot  weather,  it  will  be  well 
to  wet  the  lath  before  applying  the  plaster,  as 
then  they  will  not  absorb  so  much  water  from 
the  plaster. 

Plaster  is  usually  put  on  in  three  coats  for 
woodwork,  and  in  two  coats  for  brickwork.  The 
first  coat  consists  of  slaked  lime,  sand,  and  long, 
clean  cattle  hair  or  fiber,  this  hair  or  fiber  being 
used  to  make  the  plaster  hold  together  better. 

The  first  or  scratch  coat  is  applied  and 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


275 


Fig.  48.    Floor  Construction  at  First-Floor  Line. 

pressed  well  into  the  spaces  between  the  lath. 
It  is  this  plaster  getting  in  between  the  lath  and 
falling  over  onto  the  lath,  which  forms  the  key 
or  clinch  for  the  plaster.  This  coat  is  then 
scratched  with  the  trowel  all  over,  in  all  direc- 
tions. This  scratching  roughens  up  the  surface, 
and  makes  a  better  surface  for  the  second  coat 
to  adhere  to. 

The  second  or  brown  coat  is  a  mixture  of  lime 


276  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

putty,  sand,  and  a  little  hair  or  fiber,  and  is 
applied  after  the  scratch  coat  has  partially 
dried.  This  brown  coat  is  brought  out  to  a  true 
line  for  all  walls  and  ceilings,  and  corners  are 
made  true  and  sharp.  There  are  placed  around 
all  openings  and  back  of  all  chair  rails,  base- 
boards, etc.,  small  strips  %  inch  thick  for  three- 
coat  work,  and  %  inch  thick  for  two-coat  work, 
by  11/2  inches  wide.  These  are  called  grounds, 
and  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  plaster  (see  Figs. 
71  and  72).  The  third  coat,  sometimes  called 
the  white  or  skim  coat,  is  a  mixture  of  lime  putty 
and  white  sand,  with  a  little  plaster  of  Paris. 
This  is  a  thin,  white  coat,  put  on  and  rubbed 
down  until  hard,  giving  a  hard  white  surface. 
Sometimes  marble  dust  is  added,  which  makes 
it  harder  and  gives  a  little  more  polish  to  the 
surface.  If  a  sand  finish  is  desired,  instead  of 
the  white  coat  as  above  described,  the  third  coat 
is  mixed  with  lime  putty  and  coarse  sand. 

Flashing  and  Counter- Flashing.  By  flashing 
and  counter-flashing  is  meant  metal  protection 
for  the  intersection  of  surfaces,  to  keep  out  the 
weather.  Take  an  example  of  a  chimney  going 
through  a  roof.  Some  means  must  be  provided 
to  prevent  snow  and  water  from  coming  in 
through  the  space  between  the  vertical  side  of 
the  chimney  and  the  roof.  This  is  accomplished 
by  using  sheet  metal — either  copper,  galvanized 
iron,  or  tin — and  fastening  it  under  the  roof 
covering,  turning  it  up  against  the  chimney,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  49  and  50,  the  piece  marked  A. 


ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


277 


To  prevent  the  water  running  down  the  side  of 
the  chimney,  a  cover-piece,  called  the  counter- 
flashing,  is  fastened  into  a  mortar  joint  of  the 
brickwork,  and  turned  down  over  the  flashing. 
The  counter-flashing  should  extend  to  within 
two  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  flashing.  This 
same  method  of  protection  applies  to  joining  a 
roof  to  a  vertical  wall,  the  protection  at  the 
outside  of  a  window-frame,  or  any  other  place 
needing  similar  protection. 


B- COUNTER  FLASHING 


£*\  -  rt-Aswi 
^SHINGLES 


Fig.  49.    Section  Showing  Flashing  and  Counter-Flashing. 

Shrinkage.  A  word  might  be  said  about 
shrinkage.  All  lumber,  when  exposed  to  heat, 
will  shrink,  owing  to  the  moisture  drying  out. 
In  all  wooden  construction,  all  parts  should  be 
carefully  framed  together  to  reduce  the  shrink- 
age to  a  minimum.  One  common  error  in 
framing  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  The  girder  rests 
upon  the  post  below,  and  the  post  from  above 
rests  upon  the  girder.  We  can  see  at  a  glance 


278 


ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


Fig.  50.    Flashing  and  Counter-Flashing  around  a  Chimney. 

what  happens  when  the  girder  commences  to 
dry  out.  It  will  shrink,  causing  the  post  above 
to  settle,  which  will  affect  the  part  of  the  build- 
ing carried  in  this  way.  Fig.  52  shows  a  much 
better  way  of  framing  these  posts.  The  post 
above  rests  directly  on  the  post  below;  and  the 


Fig.   51.    Erroneous  Method.        Fig.  52.    Correct  Method. 
Framing  cf  Posts  and  Girders  to  Counteract  Effects  of  Shrinkage. 


I 

E-i 

w 

QQ 

O 

M 
M 

O 
•<{ 

M 
O 

PH 

I  ^K 

O 

^      S 
s     w 

^     « 

I 

? 

i' 


^ 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


279 


girder  is  carried  by  the  steel  plate  as  shown,  or 
by  means  of  a  cast-iron  post-cap.  By  this  means 
the  shrinkage  in  the  girder  does  not  affect  the 


Fig.  53.    Section  of  Solid  Door. 

construction  above.  Carry  out  this  same  idea 
in  all  framing.  When  one  partition  comes  over 
another,  carry  it  on  the  cap  of  the  partition 
below,  and  not  on  top  of  the  floor  construction. 
Doors.  Doors  are  of  two  kinds — the  stock 
door  and  the  built-up  door.  The  stock  door  is 
made  solid,  with  a  simple  bevel  called  an  0.  Q-. 
(or  Ogee).  The  stock  doors  are  usually  1*4 
inches,  1%  inches,  and  1%  inches  thick  (see  Fig. 
53).  The  built-up  door  has  a  core  of  %~incn 
pieces  of  pine  glued  together;  this  is  covered 
with  thin  sheets  of  wood  %  inch  thick,  called 


Fig.  54.    Typical  Section  of  a  Built-Up  Door. 

veneer,  which  is  firmly  glued  to  the  core.  The 
veneer  is  made  of  wood  to  match  the  interior 
finish  of  a  residence. 

Fig.  54  shows  a  typical  section  of  a  built-up 
door;  and  Fig.  55  shows  elevations  of  different 


280 


AKCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


doors,  with  the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
door. 

All  openings,  either  door  or  window,  should 
have  the  rough  framing  doubled  around  them. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  door  we  have  the 
threshold,  which  is  a  raised  piece,  usually  of  oak 
or  some  other  hard  wood.  This  gives  a  chance 
for  the  door  to  swing  clear  of  the  carpet  or 
rugs.  For  different  details  of  door  trim,  etc., 
see  Fig.  56. 


T 

OP 

—  -i 

P5 

Al 

==s 

- 

J 
111 

2 

111 

J 

h 

111 
J 

f 

<0 

E 

Ul 

J 

(0 

Ml 

5DL 

—  —a 

UJ 
2 

E. 

RAIL 

ec 

SBSS 

>TT 

•o^ 

ss^ss 
1  R> 

*IL 

Tig.  55.    Types  of  Paneled  Doors. 

The  door  is  hung  in  a  wooden  frame  which 
is  securely  fastened  to  the  framing  of  the  house. 
The  inside  and  outside  casing  covers  the  space 
between  the  door  frame  and  the  rough  framing. 
See  Fig.  56  for  a  section  through  a  door. 

Porch  Construction.     In  Fig.  57  (also  Fig. 


28] 


Fig.  56.    Sections  of  Front  Door  and  Side  Lights. 


282 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


Fig.  57.    Fart  Elevation  and  Section  Showing  Method  of  Porch 
Construction. 


ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


283 


rerr)  CONCRETE. 

CS331  COMMON 

BRICK 

FIR.E     BRICK 
PLAN 

Fig.  58.    A  Typical  Fireplace  Construction. 


284  AKCHITECTURAL    DEAFTING 

23),  we  see  a  part  elevation  and  a  section  show- 
ing the  method  of  porch  construction.  The  floor 
construction  will  be  the  same  as  for  ordinary 
floor  construction,  except  that  only  one  thick- 
ness of  flooring  is  used,  and  the  boards  must  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  house,  and  have  a  slight 
pitch  away  from  the  building.  This  allows  the 
water  to  drain  away  from  the  building.  In  the 
best  construction,  the  flooring  is  put  together 
with  white  lead,  thus  insuring  a  perfectly  tight 
joint  to  keep  the  water  from  soaking  in  at  the 
joints,  and  thus  causing  the  floor  to  rot. 

Fireplaces.    Fig.  58  shows  a  typical  fireplace 
construction.     The  flues  are  all  dotted  on  the 


rot*  9-s 

fOR  S'-O 


STRAIGHT 
STAIE  FOB 


FOB  s'-a- oooo. 


\-EHOOfyTAI* 
WELL  OVEQ. 


Fig.    59.    A    Simple,    Straight    Stair. 

elevation.  There  should  be  an  ash-chute  from 
each  fireplace  connected  to  an  ash-pit  in  the 
basement.  There  should  be  a  damper  in  the 
throat  of  the  fireplace  to  regulate  the  draft.  All 
fireplaces  should  be  lined  with  firebrick. 

Stairs.  For  stair  construction,  see  Figs.  59 
to  65  inclusive.  The  simplest  stairway  is  the 
one  that  has  no  turns  in  it,  or  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  59.  As  laid  out,  this  stair  is  for  an  8  ft.  6 


ABCHITECTUKAL   DKAFTING 


285 


in.  ceiling.    Should  the  ceiling  be  higher,  other 
risers  may  be  added. 

In  Fig.  65  are  shown  the  customary  details. 
The  riser  is  known  as  the  vertical  portion,  and 
the  tread  as  the  horizontal  portion.  The  main 
supports  are  usually  2  by  10-inch  or  2  by  1 2-inch, 
notched  to  fit  the  treads  and  risers,  and  are 


LANDING 
CK) 


/ONE  LANDING. 
DRAWN  POa 
IO-O"  CEILING. 


THIS  STAIft  WILL  ClVft 
MEAD  ROOM  FOR  PASS- 
AGE UNDER  LANDING. 


Fig.  60.  Fig.  61. 

Types  of  Stairs  with  One  Landing. 


1)  1 

Q 

R 

•4 

OPEN 

FLOOR  PL/AN 
Fig.  62.  Fig.  63. 

Combination  Front  and  Back  Stairs. 

called  carriages.  The  balusters  are  the  upright 
spindles  or  ornamental  pieces  supporting  the 
hand-rail. 

Various  heights  of  riser  to  tread  have  been 
tried,  but  the  one  found  most  satisfactory  is  to 
make  the  riser  from  7  inches  to  7%  inches.  The 
usual  rule  for  figuring  the  treads  and  risers  is 


286 


ARCHITECTUKAL   DEAFTING 


Fig.  64.    Elevation  of  Stairway,  Giving  Necessary  Information. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


287 


to  make  the  sum  of  a  tread  and  riser  equal  to 
17  inches  or  17%  inches.  From  this  we  see  that 
the  higher  the  riser,  the  narrower  will  be  the 
tread.  If  we  make  the  riser  7%  inches,  then  the 
tread  should  not  exceed  10  inches.  The  width 
of  tread  is  exclusive  of  the  nosing,  which  is 
usually  1%  inches. 


Fig.  65.    Section  through  Stairs,  Showing  Customary  Details. 

Stone  stairs,  or  stairs  without  a  nosing,  will 
have  to  be  wider. 

For  figuring  the  number  of  risers,  divide  the 
height  from  floor  line  to  floor  line  (in  inches), 
by  the  height  of  one  riser;  the  result  will  be  the 
number  of  risers. 

Fig.  60  shows  a  stairway  with  a  landing 
Fig.  61  is  another  form  of  stair  with  a  landing. 

Fig.  62  is  a  combination  front  and  baclf 


288 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


stairs.  There  are  separate  stairs  up  to  the  land- 
ing; then  the  back  stair  joins  the  main  stair. 
Pig.  62  is  the  first-floor  plan,  and  Fig.  63 
second-floor  plan,  of  the  same  stairs. 


the 


Fig.  66.    Single-Light  Window.       Fig.  67.    Two-Light  Window. 

Where  possible,  put  a  coat  closet  under  the 
stairs.  This  space  cannot  be  utilized  for  any- 
thing but  a  basement  stair  or  a  closet.  Usually 
there  is  a  basement  stair  in  the  rear  of  the  house. 

Fig.  64  shows  an  elevation  of  the  stairway, 
giving  all  necessary  information. 


Fig.  68.  Fig.  69. 

Types  of  Window  Construction. 

Windows.  There  are  various  types  of  win- 
dows used  in  the  construction  of  buildings.  The 
plainest  is  the  single-light  window  shown  in  Fig. 
66.  This  is  either  pivoted,  hinged,  or  fixed  to 
slide. 


ABCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  289 

The  windows  are  usually  designated  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  panes  of  glass  they  contain, 
Fig.  67,  for  example,  being  a  two-light  window. 
Very  often  a  large  glass  space  is  divided  into 
smaller  areas  by  means  of  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal strips  called  muntins,  as  shown  in  Fig.  68. 
The  lower  sash  slides  up,  while  the  upper  one 
is  usually  fixed  in  place;  this  upper  sash  is 
called  a  transom. 

When  windows  are  grouped  in  twos  or 
threes,  they  are  separated  by  means  of  vertical 
divisions.  These  divisions  are  called  mullions. 
The  weights  of  the  sash  usually  travel  in  these 
(see  Fig.  69). 

The  sash  is  usually  the  movable  frame  that 
contains  the  glass.  A  double-hung  window  is 
one  in  which  the  sash  are  counterbalanced  by 
iron  weights  so  that  the  sash  will  slide  easily 
up  and  down  in  grooves  in  the  frame.  The  sash 
of  a  window  may  be  hinged  to  open  like  doors, 
in  which  case  the  window  is  called  a  casement 
window.  If  the  sash  are  hung  on  pivots,  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  we  speak  of  the  win- 
dow as  a  pivoted  window. 

Referring  to  Fig.  68,  A  is  the  lower  rail  of 
the  sash,  usually  from  2y2  to  3  inches  wide;  B 
is  the  meeting  rail,  from  1  to  2  inches  wide; 
C  is  the  stile,  usually  2  inches  wide;  D  is  the 
upper  rail,  of  the  same  width  as  the  stile;  E 
indicates  the  muntins,  which  divide  the  sash 
into  small  areas;  F  is  the  transom  bar,  or  the 


290 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


Tig.  70.    Typical  Detail  of  Plank-Framed  Basement  Window. 

fixed  bar  between  the  transom  G  and  the  double- 
hung  sash  below. 

The  usual  thicknesses  of  sash  are  iy8  inches 
for  small  windows,  to  1%,  1%,  and  sometimes 
2%  inches,  depending  upon  the  size  of  sash. 
The  larger  the  window,  the  heavier  the  sash 
must  necessarily  be. 

In  Fig.  70  we  have  a  plank-framed  window. 
This  is  the  same  kind  of  frame  required  for  the 


AECHITECTUEAL   DKA1TING 


casement  window  as  shown  in  Fig.  76.  Fig.  70 
is  the  typical  detail  for  cellar  window  construc- 
tion. The  windows  usually  have  a  single  sash 
which  may  be  divided  by  muntins  into  smaller 


CfctttNT  FLAiTtR 
MtTAL  LATH ! 

-3Hfc.ATHW<; ^77 


Fig.  71.    Double-Hung  Window,  Outside  of  Building  Plastered. 

lights.  Notice  the  projection  on  the  bottom 
rail,  which  serves  as  a  drip  for  all  water  coming 
from  the  glass.  Such  windows  are  usually  hung 
at  the  side  or  top.  Fig.  70  is  detailed  for  a 


292 


ARCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING 


ME.ETINC    RAIL 


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EX 


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m'-*™%?^ 

^x.>/         n       7*     D\ 
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IX 


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JAMS 


Tig.   72.    Double-Hung  Window   for   a,   Brick  Wall. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


293 


.5OUTH   tLtVATtON 


.SOUTH  ELEVATION 


Fig.  73.    Part  Section  Showing    Details  of  Bay    Window    Con- 
struction. 


HALF  ELRVATION 


Fig.  74.    Details  for  a  Dormer  or  Roof  Window. 


294 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 


295 


Fig.  76.    Details  of  Casement  Window. 


296  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

brick  wall,  although  the  same  detail  will  apply 
to  a  frame  wall. 

In  Fig.  71  we  have  the  details  and  dimen- 
sions for  a  double-hung  window  in  a  frame  wall, 
the  exterior  of  the  wall  being  plastered.  In  Fig. 
72  we  have  the  details  for  a  double-hung  win- 
dow in  a  brick  wall.  Notice  that  there  is  very 
little  difference  in  construction.  The  parts  of 
the  construction  are  named  for  the  sake  of 
clearness,  A  being  the  sash,  B  the  inside  stop, 
C  the  pulley  stile,  D  the  parting  strip,  E  the 
outside  casing,  F  the  brick  mould  or  staff -head, 
G  the  back  lining,  H  the  sub- jamb,  J  the  inside 
casing,  K  the  stool,  L  the  apron,  M  the  ground, 
and  N  the  sill. 

In  Fig.  73  we  have  the  construction  for  a 
bay  window,  showing  the  boxes,  sash,  etc. 

Fig.  74  shows  the  details  for  a  dormer  or 
roof  window. 

Fig.  75  shows  the  construction  for  a  pro- 
jecting bay  window,  the  sash  being  hung  to 
swing  out.  We  have  shown  a  half  exterior 
view,  a  half  interior  view,  and  a  section. 

Fig.  76  shows  the  details  of  a  casement  win- 
dow in  which  the  head,  mullion,  and  sill,  with 
all  adjoining  construction,  are  shown.  Notice 
the  grounds  or  guide  for  the  plaster  work,  as 
spoken  of  under  "Lath  and  Plaster." 

Fig.  77  shows  the  interior  elevation  of  the 
door  and  window  trim,  with  a  large-scale  draw- 
ing of  the  exact  profiles  of  this  trim.  The  trim, 
and  in  fact  all  interior  woodwork,  are  fastened 


ARCHITECTUEAL    DEAFTING 


397 


*-WiNfow 


WINPOW 


DD 
DD 


TYPICAL  Pooi? 


Tig.  77.    Details  of  Window  and  Door  Trim. 


298  AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

to  the  grounds,  which  are  set  to  serve  as  guides 
for  the  plasterer,  and  which  should  be  placed 
back  of  all  interior  finish.  The  base  shown  is 
the  finish  at  the  floor-line.  The  base  is  nailed 
to  grounds;  and  the  quarter-round  mould  at  the 
floor  is  nailed  to  the  floor,  to  cover  the  crack  at 
the  joining  of  the  base  and  floor-line. 

SKETCHING 

In  all  architectural  work,  the  art  of  sketch- 
ing is  important.  To  be  able  to  show  one's  ideas 
clearly  and  artistically,  or  to  reproduce  some 
form  or  object  in  a  pleasing  manner,  is  indeed 
an  essential  qualification  for  the  draftsman  as 
well  as  the  architect.  Some  have  a  natural 
ability  to  sketch,  which  lacks  but  the  pencil  and 
paper  to  give  a  true  expression  of  the  idea  of 
the  mind;  while  others  acquire  the  art  of 
sketching  only  by  diligent  study  and  persistent 
practice.  Many  instances  have  proven  the  fact 
that  one  may  have  ability,  but  that  it  needs 
developing,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  mathema- 
tician, who  becomes  an  expert  in  the  higher 
mathematics  by  a  gradual  training  from  the 
simpler  problems  on  up  through  more  complex 
ones.  Because  one  has  not  ability  that  is  appar- 
ent at  the  outset,  is  no  criterion  whereby  we 
may  judge  of  his  ability  along  any  particular 
line.  Learn  to  sketch,  as  it  is  a  valuable  asset 
for  the  architect. 

Fundamental  Principle.     To  the  beginner. 


\ 


AECHITECTUKAL   DEAFIING  299 

the  object  usually  presents  itself  as  made  up 
of  small  portions,  and  ordinarily  he  will  make 
an  attempt  to  show  all  the  small  details,  over- 
looking the  main  mass  or  body  of  the  object. 
The  first  thing  is  to  be  able  to  see  the  object 
as  it  really  is,  as  it  would  really  appear  to  the 
best  advantage  when  sketched  roughly  and 
quickly.  Learn  to  look  at  the  general  grouping 
of  the  different  portions,  and  their  relation  to 
one  another.  The  beginner  attempts  to  draw 
the  object  as  he  sees  it  at  close  range,  while  the 
experienced  person  draws  it  as  it  appears  at 
a  distance.  The  tendency  of  the  beginner  is  to 
represent  everything  with  hard,  sharp,  and 
exact  lines  which  are  known  from  actual  knowl- 
edge of  the  object  to  exist,  although  they  do 
not  really  appear  so.  Learn  to  study  the  gen- 
eral proportions  as  expressed  by  the  shadows, 
rather  than  by  the  exact  outlines  bounding  each 
surface.  Studying  an  object  for  sketching  is 
really  a  study  of  the  shadows.  In  all  sketching, 
the  proportion  is  the  fundamental  principle. 
Having  correctly  represented  the  proportions, 
then  represent  the  object  by  means  of  the  shad- 
ows as  cast  upon  the  object,  and  let  the  details 
be  merely  an  after  consideration.  Learn  to  see 
the  object  correctly,  and  the  representation  by 
lines  will  come  by  practice. 

Pencils  and  Paper.  The  pencil  is  present  on 
all  occasions;  therefore  it  is  used  a  great  deal 
in  sketching.  Pencils  may  be  obtained  in  all 
degrees  of  hardness  and  softness.  Drawing 


300  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

pencils  are  usually  denoted  by  H,  HH,  etc.,  for 
hard  pencils,  up  to  8H,  which  is  a  very  hard 
lead;  the  soft  pencils  are  denoted  by  B,  BB, 
etc.,  up  to  4B  for  very  soft  pencils.  An  inter- 
mediate grade  known  as  an  HB  is  between  the 
hard  leads  commencing  with  H  and  the  soft 
leads  commencing  with  B.  This  is  a  very  con- 
venient grade  to  use  for  all  kinds  of  work.  A 
good  drawing  pencil  should  contain  no  grit. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  larger  the  drawing, 
the  softer  the  pencil,  since  the  lead  in  the  soft 
pencils  is  larger  than  that  in  the  hard  pencils. 
Therefore,  it  is  rather  difficult  to  make  a  small 
drawing  with  a  really  soft  pencil.  As  stated 
above,  the  most  satisfactory  pencil  for  all- 
around  work  is  the  medium  grade  or  the  HB 
pencil. 

The  pencil  should  never  be  sharpened  to  a 
point.  Cut  away  the  wood,  leaving  the  lead  its 
full  size;  and  by  a  few  strokes  on  a  piece  of 
scratch  paper,  wear  off  the  sharp  edge,  until 
you  have  a  line  the  full  thickness  of  the  lead. 

Hold  the  pencil  comfortably  between  the 
fingers,  not  in  a  cramped  position,  but  free  and 
easy.  The  length  of  line,  the  position  on  the 
paper,  and  the  width  and  intensity  of  the  lines 
will  determine  just  which  movements  of  the 
fingers,  wrist,  or  arm  are  the  best  suited  to  the 
work.  In  all  work,  avoid  bending  over  the 
drawing;  sit  upright  so  that  the  drawing  may 
be  all  seen  at  a  glance.  The  paper  should 


AECHITECTUEAL   DBAFTING  301 

always  be  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight, 
to  insure  the  best  work. 

The  paper  should  have  a  somewhat  rough 
texture  for  the  best  work,  although  some  very 
pleasing  sketches  have  been  made  upon  smooth 
paper.  Never  use  a  glazed  paper.  The  smooth 
paper  requires  greater  care  in  its  use,  it  being 
harder  to  erase  anything  successfully.  A  good 
grade  of  tracing  paper  makes  a  very  good  paper 
for  sketches  with  a  medium-soft  pencil. 

Method.  Begin  sketching  by  drawing  paral- 
lel lines  horizontally;  then  make  them  vertical; 
then  slanting  lines — endeavoring  all  the  time 
to  make  them  all  of  the  same  width  and 
intensity.  After  exercises  in  the  drawing  of 
straight  lines,  try  circles  and  ellipses.  Then 
sketch  familiar  household  articles.  From  these, 
let  the  student  take  up  more  difficult  work, 
learning  to  see  objects  as  they  actually  appear 
to  the  eye,  and  not  as  they  are  really  known  to 
exist. 

Referring  to  Plates  E  and  F,  notice  the 
method  used  for  indicating  surfaces.  Instead 
of  covering  the  side  of  the  building  with  long, 
mechanical,  parallel  lines,  the  lines  are  made 
short,  and  broad,  and  break  joint  so  as  to  give 
an  uneven  surface.  The  eaves  are  all  repre- 
sented by  the  shadow  they  produce,  there  being 
no  definite  line  for  the  edge  of  the  roof.  For 
the  corners  of  the  building,  there  is  not  a  hard, 
sharp  line,  but  a  broken,  irregular  line.  The 


302 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


doors  and  windows  are  all  represented  by  the 
shadows  they  cast. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  shadow  is  the 
thing  to  reproduce.  If  the  shadows  are  shown 
in  their  true  relative  proportions,  in  intensity 
and  size,  we  are  reasonably  sure  of  a  satisfac- 
tory sketch.  For  such  work,  the  object  is 


Fig.  78.    A  Quickly-Made  Preliminary  Sketch. 

usually  outlined  with  a  light  line,  to  get  the 
proper  lines  and  proportions;  in  other  words, 
just  enough  lines  are  given  to  show  the  proper 
relation  of  dimensions. 

Having  outlined  the  object,  then  commence 
with  the  soft,  broad  pencil,  and  indicate  the 
texture  and  shadows  by  varying  intensities  of 
lines. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  303 

Practice  will  give  you  the  best  training  for 
developing  the  art  of  sketching.  It  is  not 
enough  to  study  work  already  done,  analyzing 
lines  and  surfaces.  Actual  work  and  practice 
in  drawing  and  sketching  will  do  more  for  you 
than  any  mere  study  of  sketches. 

Learn  to  make  preliminary  sketches  quickly, 
and  yet  indicate  general  proportions  and  out- 
lines (see  Fig.  78).  This  sketch  was  made  in 
about  five  minutes'  time,  while  the  architect 
was  talking  to  his  client.  Some  of  the  finer 
points  of  the  original  pencil  sketch  are  neces- 
sarily lost  in  the  pen-and-ink  reproduction  from 
which  the  cut  was  engraved.  The  figure  repre- 
sents a  possible  treatment  for  a  boiler  house. 
This  is  a  good  example  of  a  preliminary  sketch, 
there  being  no  particular  time  spent  in  the 
drawing  and  very  few  straight  lines  used,  yet, 
when  the  sketch  is  studied,  we  can  see  the  gen- 
eral effect  that  such  a  building  would  produce 
in  sunlight. 

Make  your  sketches  have  some  "snap"  to 
them.  Let  each  line  be  firm,  starting  and  stop- 
ping in  a  way  that  shows  it  to  be  there  for  a 
definite  purpose.  Use  plenty  of  free  and  easy 
lines,  and  also  black  lines.  Do  away  with  sharp 
lines,  and  never  use  hard  pencils  for  this  work. 

For  the  purpose  of  laying  out  drawing,  either 
for  pencil,  pen  and  ink,  or  pen-and-ink  render- 
ing, a  sketch  will  be  shown  to  illustrate  clearly 
the  quickest  and  most  satisfactory  method. 
See  Fig.  79,  where  the  sketches  are  all  rather 


304 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


(41101 


fc*  I 

n 


Pig.  79.    Sheet  of  Drawings  Laid  Out  with  a  Sense  of  Proportion. 


AECHITECTUEAL    DKAFTING  305 

rough  or  uneven,  but  the  general  drawing  shows 
the  effect  of  proportions.  The  lines,  instead  of 
being  long  and  continuous,  are  made  up  of 
short  lines  almost  joining. 

PEN-AND-INK  RENDERING 

Finished  drawings  may  be  colored  or  ren- 
dered in  a  number  of  ways.  The  method  of 
pen-and-ink  rendering  is  very  often  used.  It 
is  indeed  an  accomplishment  to  be  able  to  render 
in  pen  and  ink  successfully.  This  usually  comes 
only  from  long  and  patient  work  in  practicing. 
A  drawing  may  also  be  rendered  in  pencil,  or 
colored  by  means  of  water-colors. 

For  pen-and-ink  rendering,  any  black  ink 
will  do.  A  good  grade  of  India  ink  is  very 
satisfactory  and  convenient.  There  was  a  time 
when  all  drawing  inks  were  made  by  grinding 
a  stick  of  India  ink  in  water  on  a  stone  bed; 
but  now  prepared  inks  are  used  almost  entirely. 
The  pens  should  be  fairly  large,  and  have  a 
medium  point;  the  tendency  of  beginners  is  to 
use  too  fine  a  point.  Any  good-quality  tracing 
paper  may  be  used. 

The  outline  of  the  work  may  be  made  upon 
scratch  paper;  and,  by  placing  the  tracing 
paper  over  it,  the  ink  rendering  can  be  made 
directly  over  the  outline.  Papers  with  soft  sur- 
faces should  be  avoided,  since  the  ink  will  have 
a  tendency  to  spread,  the  points  of  the  pen  will 
often  catch  and  spatter  ink,  and  erasing  is 


306 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


SHADOWS  CAST  UPON  AN  OEDEE  OF  AECHITECTUEE. 
PLATE1  D — ARCHITECTURAL  DRAFTING. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  307 

almost  impossible.  Good  bristol  board  makes 
a  satisfactory  surface  to  work  upon. 

All  lines  should  be  firm  and  uniform,  and 
series  of  parallel  lines  should  give  an  even 
texture  or  appearance  to  a  surface.  Avoid  the 
stiff,  hair  lines,  which  are  too  fine  to  give  any 
character  to  the  work.  In  making  ink  lines, 
while  the  general  direction  of  the  line  may  be 
straight,  yet  a  line  slightly  wavy,  or  a  line  such 
as  would  be  made  by  the  trembling  of  the  hand, 
is  not  objectionable. 

Use  care  in  drawing  lines  to  make  them  as 
uniform  as  possible,  and  exercise  care  in  the 
starting  and  stopping  of  lines.  Lines  should 
naturally  be  a  little  heavier  at  the  ending  than 
at  the  beginning. 

Referring  to  Fig.  80,  we  see  in  this  draw- 
ing, the  general  method  of  rendering  a  building 
in  pen  and  ink.  The  window-panes,  instead 
of  being  hard,  sharp  lines,  are  made  by  a  series 
of  parallel  lines  representing  the  shadow. 
Notice  the  treatment  of  the  roof,  the  shadow 
of  the  cornice,  and  the  general  lines  of  the 
building. 

Fig.  81  shows  the  use  of  parallel  lines  en- 
tirely for  the  texture  of  the  wall,  and  also  for 
the  shadows. 

Fig.  82  shows  a  very  attractive  drawing. 
Study  the  foliage  around  the  house;  see  how 
it  has  been  represented  by  lines,  sometimes 
straight  and  sometimes  curved.  The  distance 
to  the  background  is  obtained  by  the  quality 


If 

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bo 


309 


310  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

of  the  line;  the  further  away  the  background, 
the  lighter  the  line.  Study  the  lines  represent- 
ing the  wall  and  roof  surfaces.  Notice  that 
the  lines  in  general  are  not  straight,  but  are 
more  or  less  irregular.  The  shadows  in  Figs. 
81  and  82  are  composed  of  entirely  different 
kinds  of  lines.  Probably  the  best  and  easiest 
method  is  by  the  use  of  vertical  lines.  Notice, 
generally  speaking,  that  there  are  no  long  lines. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  make  such  a  line,  let  it 
be  represented  by  a  series  of  short  lines,  with 
their  ends  almost  touching.  The  tendency  of 
the  beginner  is  to  make  the  rendering  all  too 
light.  Put  in  some  black,  somewhere,  as  it 
makes  the  drawing  more  in  contrast,  and 
emphasizes  other  portions  of  the  work. 

Plate  G  is  a  good  example  of  a  sketch  ren- 
dered in  pen  and  ink. 

WASH  DRAWINGS 

Water- colors  or  India  ink  for  coloring  draw- 
ings, are  used  for  the  best  work,  almost  entirely. 
By  means  of  color  or  by  the  use  of  India  ink 
for  a  monotone,  the  shades  and  shadows  can 
be  emphasized  and  the  drawing  made  much 
more  attractive.  The  usual  method  of  proce- 
dure is  to  have  the  paper  upon  which  the  draw- 
ing is  to  be  made,  stretched  tight  upon  a  board; 
then  cast  the  shadows,  marking  the  outlines 
faintly  with  a  hard  pencil;  then  clean  the 
drawing  with  a  soft  eraser;  finally,  have  all 


O 


4 


ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING  311 

materials  ready  for  applying  the  washes,  and 
then  start  the  color  work. 

Materials.  The  usual  materials  for  wash 
drawings  are:  the  colors  or  the  India  ink;  a 
number  of  brushes  (one  a  bristle  brush  and  the 
others  soft  camel-hair  or  Japanese  brushes) ; 
plenty  of  receptacles  for  holding  the  color  in  its 
various  shades,  also  one  large  receptacle  for 
clean  water.  Porcelain  or  china  dishes  made 
especially  for  this  work  may  be  purchased  from 
any  dealer  in  artists'  materials.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  a  soft  sponge  and  a  number  of  blotters 
will  be  necessary.  The  paper  should  have  a 
rough  finish,  as  this  takes  the  color  or  wash  much 
better  than  paper  with  a  smooth  or  glazed  sur- 
face. Hot-pressed  and  cold-pressed  papers  of 
good  quality  are  largely  used  for  this  work.  The 
cold-pressed  is  a  little  rougher  than  the  hot- 
pressed  and  is  perhaps  more  frequently  used.  A 
good  tracing  paper  may  be  used  if  the  color  is 
applied  thick  and  in  spots,  or  where  no  attempt 
at  a  true  wash  drawing  is  made.  Care  will  have 
to  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  tracing  paper,  as 
too  much  water  will  spoil  the  work. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  paper  upon  which 
the  drawing  is  made  has  to  be  stretched  tight  on 
the  drawing  board.  This  may  be  done  after  the 
drawing  has  been  made,  although  it  will  be 
found  much  more  convenient  to  stretch  the 
paper  first,  and  then  make  the  drawing.  To 
stretch  the  paper,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
wetted  all  over,  and  kept  wet  until  it  is  firmly 


312  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 

fastened  in  place ;  this  wetting  causes  the  paper 
to  expand.  On  the  four  edges  of  the  paper,  for 
about  an  inch  back  from  the  edge  all  around, 
place  glue  or  drawing-board  paste.  The  paper, 
being  expanded  by  the  water,  should  now  be 
fastened  or  pressed  down  onto  the  board,  work- 
ing opposite  edges  at  the  same  time.  Do  not 
attempt  to  stretch  the  paper  perfectly  tight. 
Be  careful  to  see  that  the  edges  of  the  paper  are 
in  contact  with  the  board,  and  run  the  back  edge 
of  a  pocket-knife  all  around,  to  insure  the  glue 
or  paste  on  the  edge  of  the  paper  coming  into 
contact  with  the  board. 

After  the  paper  is  thus  stretched,  take  all  sur- 
plus water  off  by  means  of  a  sponge,  and  dry  the 
paper  as  much  as  possible  with  the  sponge. 
Allow  the  paper  to  stand  until  thoroughly  dry, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  the  paper  has 
shrunken  tight  and  smooth,  giving  a  good  sur- 
face for  the  drawing,  and  the  rendering  will  be 
much  easier  because  the  paper  is  held  firmly  in 
place.  Be  very  careful  to  see  that  the  paper  is 
stuck  to  the  board  all  along  each  of  the  four 
edges,  before  allowing  the  paper  to  dry. 

After  the  drawing  has  been  made,  the 
shadows  are  east  with  light  pencil  lines.  Clean 
the  drawing  with  a  soft  eraser,  either  of 
kneaded  rubber  or  of  "sponge"  rubber.  These 
erasers  remove  the  general  surface  dirt  without 
affecting  the  lines  materially. 

The  use  of  an  India  ink  wash  will  be 
described,  although  the  same  treatment  will  be 


AKCHITECTUKAL   DKAFTING  313 

true  of  colors.  The  drawing  should,  of  course, 
be  inked  very  carefully  before  any  tinting  is 
started.  The  erasing  of  lines  should  be  done 
very  carefully  as  the  surface  of  the  paper,  if 
rubbed  too  hard,  will  be  abraded — so  that  when 
colors  are  applied  they  will  soak  in  instead  of 
remaining  on  the  surface.  The  drawing  may  be 
very  carefully  washed  after  the  inking  is  com- 
pleted, with  a  soft  sponge;  this  removes  surplus 
ink  and  leaves  the  lines  more  subdued. 

Method  of  Applying  Wash.  Having  the 
drawing  all  ready  to  render,  a  few  principles 
must  be  followed  to  insure  the  best  results. 
Have  your  water,  color,  brushes,  blotters,  and 
sponge,  all  handy;  have  plenty  of  clean  water 
convenient;  for  heavy  or  dark  shades,  apply  sev- 
eral washes  of  a  lighter  value,  instead  of  putting 
the  heavy  color  on  all  at  once. 

Having  once  started  the  wash,  carry  it  on 
continuously,  without  allowing  it  to  dry;  any 
mistakes  can  be  remedied  after  the  wash  is  com- 
pleted, but  the  wash  should  never  be  interrupted 
to  rectify  mistakes.  Lighten  the  wash  by  the 
gradual  addition  of  clean  water;  be  careful  to 
take  the  color  from  the  top  of  the  dish,  to  avoid 
getting  the  sediment.  Always  take  about  the 
same  amount  on  the  brush,  and  do  not  allow  the 
brush  to  become  too  dry  before  adding  more,  as 
this  will  dry  much  quicker  on  the  paper,  and  the 
addition  of  more  will  cause  a  streaked  or 
mottled  effect. 

Having  reached  the  bottom  of  the  drawing, 


314 

take  up  any  standing  water  or  color  with  a 
blotter,  as  it  will  make  a  bad  appearance  if  this 
is  all  allowed  to  stand  and  dry.  The  board 
should  be  tilted  slightly,  so  that  the  wash  will 
have  a  tendency  to  move  downward;  and  it 
should  be  left  in  this  position  until  the  color  is 
dry.  Do  not  attempt  to  patch  or  add  color  to 
any  portion  of  the  drawing  that  has  commenced 
to  dry. 

Having  put  into  a  saucer  enough  of  the  ink 
for  the  drawing,  apply  the  brush  to  the  surface 
of  the  ink,  soaking  up  a  brushful.  If  the  draw- 
ing is  of  any  considerable  size,  a  wide,  flat  brush 
of  camel's  hair  can  be  used  to  better  advantage 
than  a  pointed  brush.  The  pointed  brush,  how- 
ever, will  be  the  one  most  used  on  ordinary-sized 
drawings. 

With  the  brush  filled  with  the  ink,  apply  to 
the  upper  edge  of  the  drawing,  carrying  it 
across  the  top  and  gradually  working  it  down- 
ward, adding  more  ink  as  the  brush  becomes 
drier.  Since  all  work  is  darker  at  the  top  and 
gradually  shades  lighter,  as  the  wash  is  carried 
down  the  sheet,  add  a  little  clean  water  each 
time,  until,  at  the  bottom  or  last  application  of 
the  brush,  it  should  contain  almost  clear  water. 
This  shading  from  darker  at  the  top  to  lighter 
at  the  bottom  is  a  conventional  way  of  rendering 
plans. 

Plate  H  (lower  figure),  shows  a  plan 
rendered  in  this  way,  the  darker  effect  being 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  315 

obtained  by  a  series  of  light  washes  and  not  by 
a  single  wash. 

The  brush  is  held  in  much  the  same  way  as 
a  pencil,  the  hand  being  entirely  free  from  the 
paper,  or  perhaps  at  times  resting  on  the  little 
finger. 

In  case  of  any  blotches  or  other  objection- 
able portions,  these  can  be  remedied  with  a  little 
care.  Take  the  sponge  and  dip  it  into  clear 
water.  Sop  the  portion  thoroughly,  allowing 
enough  time  for  the  water  to  soak  into  the  color; 
then  apply  a  clean  blotter,  and  soak  up  the 
water.  Be  very  careful  not  to  rub  the  blotter 
over  the  surface.  If  very  carefully  done,  the 
trouble  can  be  remedied,  and  the  drawing  will 
scarcely  show  the  spot. 

Be  careful,  in  all  work,  not  to  allow  dust  or 
hairs  from  the  brushes  to  remain  on  the  draw- 
ing. These  may  be  removed  with  a  toothpick, 
by  slightly  moistening  the  end  of  the  toothpick 
in  the  mouth  and  carefully  lifting  the  objects  off 
the  drawing.  For  lines  that  have  overrun  after 
the  wash  has  become  dry,  take  the  bristle  brush, 
moisten  it  in  clean  water,  and  rub  gently  over 
the  color  outside  the  line.  When  the  water  has 
soaked  into  the  color,  use  the  blotter.  The 
trouble  can  be  remedied  by  one  or  two  such 
treatments. 

The  methods  of  procedure  described  above 
concern  the  application  of  flat  washes. 

It  will  take  considerable  practice  to  render 
well.  The  beginner  is  advised  to  make  several 


316  ARCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 

sheets  of  such  work  as  described  above,  before 
attempting  a  plan  or  elevation.  Use  the  washes 
on  the  elevations  to  show  shadows,  or  the  por- 
tions in  shade.  See  Plate  H  (upper  figure), 
which  shows  an  elevation  rendered  in  the 
conventional  way. 

Water-colors  are  applied  or  "floated  on"  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  India  ink  washes.  Re- 
member that  in  the  use  of  colors  you  will  have 
to  be  very  careful  to  have  a  dish  and  a  brush 
for  each  color,  as  the  least  particle  of  color  in  the 
clear  water  will  sometimes  change  the  color  of 
some  other  dish  if  the  two  are  used.  Clean  color 
boxes,  brushes,  and  water  are  the  first  requisites 
of  good  rendering  in  color. 

Colors  may  be  obtained  either  in  tubes,  sim- 
ilar to  oil  paints,  or  in  pans,  which  are  small 
dishes  of  color.  These  should  all  be  kept  in  a 
water-color  box.  There  are  usually  two  palettes 
or  lids  to  this  box,  on  which  the  colors  may  be 
mixed.  If  there  is  to  be  any  quantity  of  color 
used,  these  palettes  will  not  be  large  enough, 
and  the  dishes  should  be  used. 

In  the  use  of  either  color  or  India  ink,  apply 
enough  color  to  give  the  drawing  some  char- 
acter; make  it  "snap;"  do  not  commit  the  oft- 
repeated  offense  of  having  your  drawing  look 
"sickly"  or  have  a  washed-out  appearance. 
Attack  the  problem  of  rendering,  with  determi- 
nation; put  on  the  colors  as  colors,  and  not  as  if 
you  were  afraid  of  spoiling  something. 

Red,  blue,  and  yellow  are  commonly  called 


ABCHITECTUEAL   DKAFTING  317 

the  three  primary  colors,  and  in  combination 
will  give  the  intervening  tints  or  colors  of  the 
prism.  Thus  blue  and  yellow  will  give  green; 
red  and  yellow  will  give  orange,  and  red  and 
blue  will  give  violet  or  purple,  the  tints  varying 
according  as  one  or  the  other  color  predominates 
in  the  combination. 

ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

In  the  study  of  architectural  history,  we  turn 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  a  great  many 
fundamental  principles  of  design.  We  see  that 
they  had  proportions  for  everything.  Adopting 
some  unit,  the  building  was  designed  and 
erected  with  this  as  a  unit.  They  had  certain 
arrangements  of  a  cornice,  a  column,  and  a 
base  which  have  been  handed  down  for  ages. 
All  of  the  parts  had  certain  relations  to  one  an- 
other in  size.  This  combination  we  have  called 
an  Order. 

We  have  four  Orders  which  are  used  in  archi- 
tecture— the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Cor- 
inthian. (See  Figs.  83  to  86.)  A  fifth  Order— 
the  so-called  Composite  Order — combines  fea- 
tures of  the  others. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  ornamentation 
on  the  mouldings  has  been  omitted  for  the  sake 
of  clearness  in  revealing  the  important  propor- 
tions. Each  Order  has  the  three  main  divisions 
— the  entablature,  column,  and  pedestal.  In  our 
architectural  design,  the  base  or  pedestal  is 


318 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


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Fig.  83.    The  Tuscan  Order. 


AKCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING  319 

usually  omitted.  As  will  be  seen  from  the 
drawings,  the  entablature  has  three  divisions — 
the  cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave;  the  column 
is  divided  into  the  cap,  shaft,  and  base;  the 
pedestal,  into  the  cap,  die,  and  base. 

The  entablature  varies  from  1%  to  2%  times 
the  diameter  of  the  column.  The  cornice  pro- 
jects from  the  face  of  the  column  a  distance 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  cornice  in  all  cases 
except  in  the  Doric  Order.  The  frieze  is  a  flat 
band  or  surface,  sometimes  ornamented.  The 
architrave  may  be  made  of  a  single  band,  or  it 
may  be  divided  into  a  number  of  bands. 

The  column  has  a  capital  or  top,  varying 
from  a  plain  cushion  to  the  elaborate  cap  of  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  Orders.  The  shaft, 
in  some  Orders,  is  perfectly  plain,  while  in 
others  it  is  fluted.  All  columns  have  a  taper  at 
the  top.  The  shaft  is  carried  up  straight  for 
one-third  the  height;  and  from  this  point  it 
tapers.  This  tapering  is  called  entasis.  The 
shaft  rests  on  a  base  which  consists  of  a  torus 
and  a  plinth,  or  a  series  of  toruses  called  an 
Attic  base. 

The  diameter  of  the  column  at  the  straight 
portion  is  used  as  the  unit  of  measurement  for 
all  other  parts. 

Fig.  83  shows  the  Tuscan  Order,  with  the 
principal  proportions.  This  is  the  simplest 
Order,  being  perfectly  plain.  It  is  used  a  great 
deal  for  porches,  or  for  lower  stories  where  there 
are  a  series  of  Orders  above. 


320 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 
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TRICUYPM  DENTICULATED 


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Fig.  84.    The  Doric  Order. 


AECHITECTUEAL    DKAFTING 


321 


Fig.  85.    The  Ionic  Order. 


322  AKCEITECTUKAL   DKAFTING 

Fig.  84  shows  the  Doric  Order.  This  has 
a  great  deal  of  ornament,  both  on  the  soffit  of 
the  corona  (the  projecting,  crowning  member  of 
the  cornice),  and  on  the  mouldings.  In  most 
modern  designs,  we  see  this  Order  modified 
more  or  less. 

There  are  two  types  of  cornices  used  with 
the  Doric  Order — one  with  the  mutules  (project- 
ing flat  blocks  ornamented  on  the  under  sur- 
face) ;  and  the  other  with  the  dentils  (a  course  of 
small  cubes  in  the  bed-moulding).  The  general 
profile  of  the  cornice  is  different  in  the  two 
types.  The  shaft  is  very  often  fluted. 

Fig.  85  shows  the  Ionic  Order,  with  the  prin- 
cipal proportions.  The  cornice  may  have 
brackets  called  modillions,  or  it  may  have  the 
dentils.  The  capital  for  the  column  varies,  the 
left-hand  half  showing  the  cushion  capital,  and 
the  right  half  shows  the  volute  turned  at  45 
degrees,  thus  giving  all  faces  alike.  The  shaft 
is  fluted,  and  the  mouldings  are  usually 
ornamented. 

Fig.  86  shows  the  Corinthian  Order.  The 
main  difference  from  the  other  Orders  is  the 
capital,  which  is  highly  ornamented  by  means 
of  acanthus  leaves.  This  Order  is  probably  the 
most  dignified,  and  is  also  the  most  expensive. 
Sometimes  the  shaft  is  fluted.  The  mouldings 
are  all  greatly  ornamented. 

There  is  a  variation  of  the  Corinthian 
Order,  called  the  Composite  Order,  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  volutes 


AKCHITECTUEAL   DRAFTING 


323 


Fig.  86.    The  Corinthian  Order. 


OVOLO  OB  BOWTCL  'ELLIPTICAL  OVOLO  CAVCTTO 


TORUS  oo  BEAD  FILLET  OR  UISTE.L  CONCC 


ROUND  BtAK  MOULDING         }t>LAY-FAC,t.  DEVIL  OB  CMAM«O 


THUMB  MOULDING 


CYMA   EECTA  CYMA     REVCOSA  QOIRKKD    CYMA 


Fig.  87.    Common  Forms  of  Classic  Mouldings. 
324 


AKCHITECTUKAL    DEAFTING  325 

of  the  capital,  they  being  much  larger  and 
turned  out  the  same  way  as  in  the  true 
Corinthian. 

All  of  these  Orders  are  modified  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  in  all  applications  of  them,  each 
architect  making  changes  to  conform  to  general 
styles  he  is  using  on  the  building.  The  propor- 
tions, however,  cannot  be  varied  much  without 
spoiling  the  general  effect  of  the  Order. 

Pig.  87  gives  some  of  the  common  forms  of 
mouldings,  with  the  corresponding  names. 

ARCHITECTURAL  LETTERING 

Good  lettering  is  an  essential  requisite  of  a 
good  set  of  plans.  A  drawing  poorly  executed 
but  lettered  attractively  and  well,  will  look  a 
great  deal  better  than  one  which  is  well  drawn 
but  which  is  poorly  lettered.  Therefore,  at  the 
start,  let  it  be  said  that  a  draftsman  needs  to  be 
a  good  letterer  as  well  as  a  good  draftsman. 

We  find  lettering  used  with  the  earliest  art 
of  the  Egyptians.  These  ancient  people  ex- 
pressed their  thoughts  by  means  of  symbols, 
more  or  less  geometrical  in  outline.  These  in- 
scriptions we  find  in  the  oldest  of  our  Biblical 
writings;  they  were  worked  in  stone  and  written 
on  their  papyrus.  The  forms  used  are  called 
hieroglyphics,  and  students  of  ancient  languages 
have  been  able  to  translate  these  strange 
characters. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  characters  very 


326  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

similar  to  ours.  We  have  copied  their  forms, 
and  use  them  to-day  for  our  letters.  Some  of 
the  inscriptions  'on  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  temples  are  splendid  examples  of  letter- 
ing, as  to  both  form  and  spacing. 

The  first  principle  to  remember  is  that  good 
lettering  comes  from  freehand  work,  and  not  a 
mechanical  product.  The  tendency  of  the  begin- 
ner, especially,  is  to  make  all  letters  by  means 
of  straight  edges  and  drawing  instruments. 
The  difference  in  the  two  methods  is  evident 
when  we  compare  work  of  the  two  kinds.  The 
printed  letter  such  as  is  used  for  newspaper 
headlines,  and  the  title  as  executed  on  a  set  of 
drawings,  show  very  clearly  that  the  former  is 
too  mechanical  and  stiff,  while  the  latter,  if  well 
executed,  is  much  the  more  attractive.  Then 
again,  freehand  lettering  can  be  adjusted  to  the 
general  type  of  the  drawing. 

After  the  graceful  ease  and  ready  adapta- 
bility of  freehand  work,  the  next  requisite  in 
good  achitectural  lettering  is  simplicity.  The 
simpler  the  letter,  the  easier  made,  and  the 
better  the  general  effect.  Examples  illustrating 
this  can  be  seen  in  the  effect  of  highly  orna- 
mental letters  in  newspaper  advertising. 

Learn  to  make  the  titles  the  same  as  a  free- 
hand sketch.  Make  plenty  of  strokes  of  the 
pencil;  get  the  general  shape  of  the  letters,  and 
the  spacing.  Do  not  attempt  to  make  each  letter 
with  one  stroke  of  the  pencil. 

After  having  made  the  title  with  several  out- 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 


lines,  then  go  over  this,  and  the  final  lettering 
can  be  done  from  this  sketch  of  the  letters.  Get 
the  general  proportions  and  shapes  first,  to- 
gether with  the  spacing,  before  trying  to  get  a 
finished  title.  Develop  the  title  as  a  whole,  and 
let  the  small  details  of  each  letter  be  the  last 
thing  attempted. 

The  effect  of  the  spacing  of  letters  upon  the 
general  appearance  of  the  title,  will  be  seen 
from  the  accompanying  illustrations  of  ex- 
amples. Study  the  available  space  for  the  title; 


Fig.  88.    Forms  and  Proportions  of  Letters. 

and  make  the  size,  style,  and  spacing  of  the 
letters  to  suit  the  conditions.  The  guide  lines, 
with  perhaps  a  few  lines  limiting  the  edges  of 
the  letters,  are  the  only  mechanical  lines  that 
should  be  used. 

It  will  be  well  to  consider  some  of  the  letter 
forms,  in  order  to  understand  just  how  they  are 
made  to  look  the  best.  See  Fig.  88.  The  A  is 
made  wide  enough  at  the  bottom  to  give  the 
appearance  of  stability.  The  cross-line  should 
always  be  below  the  center,  for,  if  exactly  on 
the  center,  the  upper  portion  appears  too  small 
for  the  base.  The  B  should  have  the  upper  half 


328  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

smaller  than  the  lower,  both  as  to  the  width  and 
the  cross-line.  It  appears  over-balanced  if  the 
upper  half  is  made  exactly  like  the  lower  half. 
The  C  should  have  the  upper  projection  of  the 
curve  a  little  less  than  the  lower.  E  should  be 
smaller  above  the  center  line  than  below.  The 
cross-line  of  F,  H,  and  B  should  be  the  same. 
G  should  be  similar  to  C  in  the  greater  projec- 
tion of  the  lower  part  of  the  curve.  P,  because 
it  has  no  lower  portion,  should  be  made  a  little 
larger  than  one-half  the  height.  S  should  have 
the  upper  half  the  smaller.  X  and  Y  usually 
have  their  intersection  on  the  center  line. 

By  keeping  these  facts  in  mind,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  letters  will  be  much  improved. 

For  different  styles  of  titles,  where  certain 
types  of  letters  are  used,  the  above  rules  will 
be  modified;  but  for  general  work  they  should 
be  followed. 

Single-line  letters  are  used  almost  entirely  in 
lettering  plans  and  drawings. 

Spacing  of  Letters.  As  to  the  spacing,  there 
is  no  set  rule  for  standard  dimensions;  but  a  few 
rules  may  be  given  as  a  guide.  Letters  which 
have  vertical  and  parallel  sides  coming  together, 
are  spaced  the  greatest  distance  apart.  Take  H 
and  B,  for  example;  these  require  the  largest 
space.  In  case  of  a  curve,  as  an  0  or  a  C,  with 
an  N  or  an  H,  the  spacing  will  be  about  two- 
thirds  of  that  for  the  H  and  the  N.  This  same 
rule  will  hold  for  the  curve  of  a  D  with  an  N  or 
M  or  any  letter  with  a  vertical  line. 


AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  329 

If  two  curves  come  together — as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  C  and  a  G,  or  a  B  and  a  C — the  space 
is  slightly  less  than  for  N  and  0. 

If  A  and  V  come  together,  make  the  lower 
point  of  the  A  come  directly  under  the  upper 
point  of  the  V;  there  should  be  no  vertical  space 
between  these  letters.  A  or  V,  with  0  or  B, 
will  have  about  the  same  spacing  as  two  curves, 
such  as  B  and  C  or  C  and  0. 

While  the  above  rules  are  only  general,  yet 
they  will  serve  as  a  guide. 

When  marks  of  punctuation  are  used,  the 
spacing  will  have  to  be  increased  over  that  of 
the  regular  arrangement.  The  spacing  between 
words  depends  upon  the  style  of  letter  used  and 
the  available  space.  Increasing  the  spacing  will 
make  the  words  more  prominent. 

In  doing  all  letter  work,  it  should  first  be 
penciled  completely,  before  any  inking  is  done. 
It  is  much  easier  to  erase  and  make  changes 
while  the  title  is  still  in  pencil  than  after  it  is 
inked.  The  ink  will  emphasize  all  irregularities. 

The  tendency  of  the  beginner  is  to  use  too 
fine  a  pen.  A  new  pen  is  always  hard  to  work 
with,  since  it  makes  a  thin  hair  line.  Sometimes 
a  new  pen  can  be  made  to  work  more  easily,  by 
heating  the  point  with  a  match.  This  will 
render  it  more  flexible,  although  the  pen  will 
not  last  so  long.  Be  very  careful  to  make  the 
same  thickness  of  line  for  all  parts  of  the  letters, 
and  for  all  letters  of  the  title.  It  will  require 
practice  to  be  able  to  use  the  pen  satisfactorily. 


330  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

The  inks  can  be  any  of  the  ready-mixed 
India  inks.  These  are  very  satisfactory,  and  are 
much  more  convenient  than  grinding  the  ink 
from  an  India  ink  stick.  Since  the  prepared 
inks  evaporate  and  therefore  thicken  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  the  cork  of  the  bottle  should 
always  be  at  once  replaced  after  filling  the  pen. 
Some  grades  of  black  writing  ink  may  be 
used,  although  the  India  ink  is  much  more 
satisfactory. 

Almost  all  of  the  drawing  papers  will  take 
ink.  Tracing  paper  and  tracing  cloth  are  used 
a  great  deal.  Bristol  board  is  used  where  letter- 
ing is  employed,  as  for  an  inscription,  or 
where  it  is  not  a  part  of  a  drawing. 

In  lettering,  first  rule  the  guide-lines  in 
pencil;  then  pencil  the  letters,  and  then  ink. 
There  is  no  rule  for  holding  the  pen;  be  sure  to 
learn  to  have  a  free  and  easy  stroke.  By 
practice,  learn  to  have  a  uniform  line ;  and  have 
confidence  in  your  ability  before  you  start. 
Usually  the  beginner  is  a  little  backward  when 
starting  the  lettering  on  a  sheet.  By  practicing 
vertical  lines,  inclined  lines,  and  curves,  one 
gradually  learns  the  use  of  the  pen.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  strokes  are  all  downward;  and 
a  curve,  as  for  O,  is  made  up  of  a  series  of 
strokes.  There  will  be  difficulty  in  getting 
straight  lines  and  curves  of  the  same  size. 

In  penciling,  always  use  a  soft  pencil,  one 
free  from  grit.  Make  the  lines  as  light  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  they  can  be  erased  with  as  little 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  381 

pressure  as  possible.  Keep  the  paper  as  free 
from  erased  lines  as  possible,  as  the  erasing 
tends  to  destroy  the  general  surface  of  the 
paper,  and  makes  it  much  more  difficult  to  ink 
properly  upon  it.  Should  a  mistake  be  made, 
after  the  ink  has  become  thoroughly  dry,  use 
an  ordinary  pencil  eraser,  and  rub  gently  in  all 
directions.  Stop  at  short  intervals  to  allow  the 
eraser  to  cool,  as  it  will  smear  the  ink  if  it 
becomes  too  hot  from  rubbing.  After  the  eras- 
ing, take  some  smooth,  hard  surface — be  sure  it 
is  clean — and  rub  gently  over  the  erased  surface 
to  give  a  smooth  finish  to  the  paper.  Some 
think  that  a  regular  ink  eraser  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  ink;  but  the  pencil  eraser  will  do  the 
work  better  and  leave  the  surface  of  the  paper 
in  much  better  condition.  The  work  of  erasing 
will  be  slow  and  tedious,  but  it  should  be  care- 
fully done. 

The  size  of  letter  will  depend  upon  the  space, 
if  the  space  is  limited.  Otherwise  the  letter 
should  be  made  to  correspond  to  the  size  of  the 
drawing,  a  large,  full-size  drawing  "requiring  a 
large  letter,  while  a  quarter-inch  scale  drawing 
will  require  a  small  letter.  By  a  careful  study  of 
proportions,  one  can  make  a  drawing  look  the 
best.  Poor  judgment  in  this  respect  will  often 
spoil  a  well-drawn  plan. 

Titles  are  put  on  every  sheet  of  a  set  of  draw- 
ings. Each  drawing  on  the  sheet  must  have  a 
single-line  title ;  and  each  sheet  must  have  a  title 
complete,  giving  the  name  of  the  work,  the 


332  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

client's  name,  the  location,  the  scale,  and  some- 
times the  date.  For  the  convenience  of  the 
architect,  he  usually  places  in  one  corner  his 
name,  the  number  of  the  sheet,  the  job  number, 
the  initials  of  the  different  men  who  made  the 
drawing,  and  the  date.  This  gives  him  his 
record  for  filing  the  set  of  drawings. 

Choose  a  style  of  letter  that  will  be  clear  and 
simple.  While  the  architect  has  more  liberty  in 
the  choice  and  spacing  of  letters  than  the 
engineer,  yet  the  fundamental  principle  is  clear- 
ness. Capitals  are  used  almost  entirely  for 
titles,  and  small  letters  for  notes  of  all  kinds. 

THET^ADFOKD    A  t^jm  ITECTURAL.    Co- 

I   2    3  4-    S    6  7    8    9    IO     II    12    13      V*    <3  I*   17  l»  19  2O  £'  *2  ?3  C»  25  Z*  C7  2» 


CHICAGO  [ILLINOIS 

i   2  A  •»  s  &   v  m  s  to  ii  n.  ra  i*  «f '* 

l   i     z    3    +    a     *    T    •      »     >o  «  >*    is  1i 

T  JCHITCCTURALUP' 

[1  LLINOI5' 

15  23  22  21  20    19  18  17     16  ! 

T      DFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  Co- 

o  !  ILLINOIS- 

Fig.  89.    Method  of  Centering  a  Title. 

In  laying  out  a  title,  there  is  usually  a  cer- 
tain space  it  will  have  to  occupy;  therefore  the 
title  must  be  centered  about  a  vertical  center 
line  through  this  space.  The  method  of  center- 
ing a  title  is  shown  in  Fig.  89.  Decide  upon  the 
wording,  and  write  out  each  line  as  it  is  to  be 
copied.  Upon  a  piece  of  scratch-paper,  spell  out 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING  333 

the  letters  in  each  line,  numbering  each  letter  in 
order,  and  also  the  spaces  between  the  letters. 
The  center  of  each  line  is  then  evident. 

Lay  out  the  center  line  of  the  space  to  be 
occupied  on  the  drawing,  and,  after  drawing  the 
guide-lines,  start  at  the  center  line,  and  com- 
mence sketching  in  the  letters,  first  to  the  right, 
as  shown  in  the  third  line*  Fig.  89.  Thus  the 
right  half  of  the  title  is  sketched  first.  Now 
take  a  piece  of  paper,  and  lay  off  to  the  left  the 
same  distance  as  the  right  half  extends  to  the 
right.  This  gives  us  a  starting  point  for  the 
left  half.  This  part  may  be  worked  either  from 
the  left  to  the  right,  or,  as  shown  in  the  fifth 
line,  the  letters  may  be  placed  in  the  order  as 

•  INTERIOR  DETAILS- 


RE.51DE.NCC.-  FOE.     HOM-  A- 

-  AUDANV       -  -  -        A(E.W  YOEK- 


•V/KBANA     - 

Fig.   90.    Arrangement  of  a  Title  Showing  Symmetry  but  not 
Mechanical  Stiffness. 

numbered.  A  little  experience  will  enable  one 
to  lay  out  a  title  quickly  and  accurately  in  this 
manner. 

Having  the  general  arrangement  in  pencil, 
go  over  it  carefully,  and  make  the  letters, 
properly  spaced  and  in  good  outline.  The  title 
is  then  ready  for  inking.  In  all  titles,  let  the 
composition  or  spacing  be  such  that  while  the 
title  as  a  whole  shall  be  symmetrical,  its  general 


AHCHITECTUBAL   DEAFTING 


ASCHITHCTUEAL 


abcdefahij  k 


LC.T5' 

ron 


Convenient   for  all  nofes 


ADCDnrGMIJ 
KLMNOPQ12OT 


T  inc^^  I  foof  • 

T" 

Fig.   91.    Easily-Made  Letters  for  General  Drawings. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  335 

AfcCHITtCTUllAL 
LLTTLRJ 

abcde^hijklnnn 
opqn/tuvwxyz. 

A  good  letter  for 
Inscription.?  <and 
General  notej-'A 
Di^mfie-4  le-ttcr- 

AftOLFGHUK 

LMNOPQWTV 

WXYZ— 

-rR.ONTLLLVAT10N- 

Fig.  92.    A  Dignified  Type  of  Letter  for  Inscriptions,  General 

Notes,  etc. 


336 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAFTING 


TECTORAL 


LETTERS 


ABCDE.F6H 


ABCDEFGHIJKL 
MNOPQR5TW 
— WXYZ  - 


Fig.  93.    Showing  Double-Line  Letters  Used  Largely  for  General 

Titles. 


ARCHITECTUKAL   DRAFTING  337 


ARCH  1  TtCTURAL 


V/XYZ  - 

LCTTELR 


ALL 
P  R  EL/W1D  • 
12^)4567600- 

Fig.  94.     Letters  Suitable  for  Large-Scale  and  Full-Sized  Details. 


cr 
r 

< 


&    o 


01 
0 
IL 

U 

2 

dJ 
h 

U 

-J 

IL 
0 

il 
N 

0 
| 

§ 

lU 

Dl 


U 


o 


o 

n 

iL 

J 

f 


d 
0 

<0 


tO 


o 

0  i" 

Li 


<0 
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(0 

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V 


.0 


v$ 


9 


Q' 


338 


DESIGN  OF  A  OOUET  HOUSE  FOR  A  SMALL  CITY. 


Courtesy  of  Armour  Institute  of  Technology. 
ELEVATION  AND  PLAN  RENDERED  IN  WASH. 
PLATE  H — ARCHITECTURAL  DRAFTING. 


ABCHITECTUBAL    DEAFTING  389 


LLTTCRJ 
ACrOODJTYLLor 


DLTAILS- 


uv  wxyz.  -  fZ  3  45  C,  73  9O  - 

DLTAIL*  °r£>OOK 
CASL  -  NOTE- 

£ll  doors  /o  *>f/J<z  —  =-* 

Fig.  96.    A  Good  Form  of  Slanting  Letter  for  Large  Work  and 
Full-Sized  Details. 


340  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAFTING 

outline  shall  not  be  inclosed  by  straight  lines. 
A  line,  for  example,  connecting  the  ends  of  the 
different  lines  of  a  title  should  not  be  straight, 
but  irregular,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90.  Try  to  avoid 
making  the  lines  exactly  the  same  length. 
Where  the  same  general  title  is  to  be  used  on  a 
number  of  drawings  of  a  set,  it  is  very  con- 
venient to  make  the  title  in  pencil  on  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  trace  it  through  the  tracing  cloth 
for  the  finished  drawing.  This  saves  a  great 
deal  of  time,  and  gives  a  uniform  title  for  every 
sheet. 

The  styles  of  letters  mostly  in  use  by  archi- 
tects are  shown  in  Figs.  91  to  96. 

Fig.  91  presents  an  easy  substantial  title, 
quickly  made,  and  very  clear.  This  form  of 
letter  will  be  found  very  satisfactory  for  general 
drawings. 

Fig.  92  shows  a  type  of  letter  largely  used. 
It  has  a  dignified  appearance,  is  suitable  espe- 
cially for  inscriptions  on  tablets  or  buildings, 
and  is  quickly  and  easily  made. 

Fig.  93  shows  a  form  of  double-line  letter, 
very  quickly  made ;  this  letter  is  used  largely  for 
general  titles. 

Fig.  94  shows  a  good  style  of  letter  to  use  on 
full-sized  details  and  large-scale  details.  It  is 
made  by  several  strokes  of  the  pen.  Long  lines 
are  hard  to  make;  therefore  the  long  lines  are 
made  up  of  a  series  of  short  lines.  When  well 
done,  it  makes  a  very  attractive  form  of  letter 
to  use.  The  figure  is  small,  and  the  true  values 


AECHITECTURAL   DRAFTING  341 

of  the  broken  lines  do  not  show  up  as  they  do 
on  large  work. 

Fig.  95  is  a  sheet  showing  the  relative  sizes 
of  letters  to  use  on  a  drawing.  The  small  letters 
may  be  made  either  slanting  or  vertical. 

It  is  much  easier  to  make  a  slanting  line  than 
a  vertical  line.  Irregularities  show  less  in  slant- 
ing letters  than  in  vertical  letters,  and  for 
this  reason  some  architects  use  a  slanting  letter 
entirely.  The  vertical  letter,  however,  is  much 
more  dignified,  and,  when  well  done,  is  more 
satisfactory. 

Fig.  96  is  a  good  form  of  slanting  letter  for 
full-size  detailing  and  large  work. 

It  is  as  true  of  drafting  as  it  is  of  every  other 
branch  of  worthy  human  endeavor.  Experience 
is  the  one  great  and  indispensable  teacher.  Just 
as  we  learn  to  sing  by  singing,  and  to  build 
houses  by  building  them,  so  we  learn  to  draw 
by  drawing;  and  it  is  only  by  persistent 
practice  on  the  part  of  the  draftsman  that  the 
highest  proficiency  can  be  acquired. 


INDEX 


Architectural  Drafting 


PAGE 

Aligraphy 240 

Apron    296 

Architecture,   Colonial 2i9 

Architectural  Drafting 187 

Architectural  Drawings 194 

Architectural  Forms .%  244 

Architectural  Lettering 325 

Architrave    217 


Back-Lining 296 

Balusters 285 

Base 217 

Bay  Window 296 

Blue-Printing 238 

Box  Cornice 268 

Brackets  269 

Brick  Moulds 296 

Buildings,  Types  of 220 

Building  Lines 249 

Built-Up  Doors 279 


Cap 

Capital 

Carriages    

Casing 

Inside    

Outside   

Casement  Windows 

Colonial  Architecture 

Colors,  Primary 

Column    

Competition  Drawings 

Composite  Order 

Composition  of  a  Building 
Construction 

Details  of 

Floor  

Materials  of 

Corinthian   Order 

Cornice 217, 

Box    

Open 


296 
296 
289 


317 
217 
203 
317 


268 
271 
25* 
317 
268 
268 
268 


PAGE 

Counter-Flashing 276 

Crown-Mould    .  .  269 


Deadening  Material 273 

Dentil  Course 269 

Details  of  Construction 268 

Die 217 

Dimension  Lines 249 

Doric  Order 317 

Dormer  Windows 296 

Doors 279 

Built-Up   279 

Stock 279 

Double-Hung  Windows 289 

Drawings 

Architectural   194 

Competition    203 

Reproducing 238 

Wash  310 

Working  206 


E 


Elevation,  The 216 

217       Elevations,  Treatment  of...  221 

217      Entablature 217 

285 


Fascia   269 

Fireplaces 284 


219       Flashing  and  Counter- 


Flashing    276 

Floor  Construction 271 

Deadening  Material 273 

Under-Floor  272 

Flue,  Vent 252 

Forms,  Architectural 244 

Fresh- Air  Supply 252 

Frieze    217 


Ground,  The 296 

Gutter  270 


342 


INDEX 


343 


PAGE 

Header    273 

Hectograph  Process 240 


India-Ink    310 

Ionic  Order 317 


Joists 


Lath  and  Plaster 274 

Lettering 

Architectural    325 

Spacing 328 

Library   220 

Lines 

Building   249 

Dimension     249 

Lining,  Back 296 

Lookout 269 

M 

Materials  of  Construction .  . .  255 
Muntins  ..                               .289 


Office    Building 220 

Open  Cornice 268 

Openings,  Location  of 226 

Orders,  Use  of  the 216 

Orders  of  Architecture.  .      .  317 


Parting  Strip 296 

Pedestal    217 

Pen  and  Ink  Eendering 305 

Perspective  Sketches 203 

Pivoted   Windows 289 

Plan,  The 206 

Planceer    269 

Plank-Framed    Windows 290 

Plaster    274 

Plinth    217 

Porch   Construction. 280 

Preliminary  Sketches 194 

Primary  Colors.  .  .  317 


PAGE 

Pulley  Stile 296 

Eendering,  Pen  and  Ink.  . . .  305 

Eeproducing  Drawings 238 

Eiser    285 

Eoof  Windows 296 

S 

Sash  289 

Scale  Details 227 

Schoolhouse    220 

Section,  The 22V 

Shades  and  Shadows 259 

Shadows,  Shades  and 259 

Shaft 217 

Shrinkage   277 

Sill  296 

Single-Light  Windows 288 

Sketches 

Perspective 203 

Preliminary    194 

Sketching    298 

Fundamental  Principles. . .  298 

Method    301 

Soffit 269 

Staff-Head   296 

Stairs 284 

Stile,  Pulley 296 

Stock  Doors 279 

Stool    296 

Strip,  Parting 296 

Sub-Jamb   296 

Symbols,  Architectural 244 


Threshold    280 

Tracing   Cloth 243 

Transom    289 

Tread    285 

Treatment  of  Elevations.  . . .  221 

Tuscan  Order 317 

Types  of  Buildings 220 


U 


Under-Floor  272 

Use  of  the  Orders . .  .216 


Veneer 279 


344  INDEX 

W  PAGE 

PAGE          Bay   296 

Warehouse    221          Casement    289 

Wash  Drawings 310  Double-Hung    289 

Method    310          Pivoted   289 

Water-Table 217   '       Plank-Framed    290 

Water-Colors 305,  310          Eoof 296 

White-Printing    239  Single-Light 288 

Windows    288,  296       Working  Drawings 206 


MODEL  HOUSE  DESIGNS 


SUPPLEMENT— PART  II 


A  Collection  of  Forty-one  Well-planned,  Modern,  and  Distinc- 
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83 


Index  to  House  Plan  Supplement — Part  II 


—  Estimated 

Cost- 

Price  of  Plans 

Design. 

Page. 

From  About 

To  About 

and  Specifications, 

2005-D 

66 

$2,500 

$2,800 

$12.00 

2544-D 

68 

3,500 

4,000 

15.00 

5127 

64 

2,275 

2,425 

10.00 

6501 

18 

2,825 

3,225 

18.00 

6502 

48 

3,800 

4,200 

24.00 

6503 

54 

6,500 

6,900 

30.00 

6504 

2 

3,000 

3,400 

22.00 

6505 

60 

4,900 

5,200 

26.00 

6506 

46 

2,800 

3,200 

20.00 

6507 

16 

6,000 

6,200 

28.00 

6508 

72 

3,125 

3,325 

22.00 

6509 

10 

2,800 

3,200 

16.00 

6510 

4 

3,800 

4,200 

18.00 

6511 

44 

5,200 

5,600 

26.00 

6512 

32 

3,150 

3,550 

16.00 

6513 

22 

2,200 

2,400 

16.00 

6514 

34 

5,600 

5,800 

28.00 

6515 

6 

4,675 

4,975 

18.00 

6516 

3G 

2,875 

3,275 

20.00 

6517 

8 

4,800 

5,200 

26.00 

6518 

56 

3,800 

4,200 

22.00 

6519 

28 

2,625 

3,025 

16.00 

6520 

30 

4,100 

4,500 

24.00 

6521 

20 

4,400 

4,800 

24.00 

6522 

58 

6,000 

6,200 

28.00 

6523 

38 

2,700 

3,100 

16.00 

6524 

26 

6,000 

6,400 

28.00 

6525 

40 

6,400 

6,800 

30.00 

6526 

14 

2,475 

2,875 

18.00 

6527 

74 

7,500 

8,000 

24.00 

6528 

50 

4,200 

4,600 

24.00 

6529 

24 

4,250 

4,650 

26.00 

6530 

42 

5,000 

5,500 

20.00 

6531 

62 

6,600 

7,000 

30.00 

6532 

52 

3,200 

3,600 

20.00 

6533 

76 

3,200 

3,475 

22.00 

6534 

12 

6,200 

6,600 

30.00 

0507 

80 

3,200 

3,800 

18.00 

9509 

82 

3,200 

3,800 

18.00 

9510 

78 

2,800 

3,400 

18.00 

9520 

70 

3,075 

3,475 

22.00 

84 

Plans  and  Specifications  at  Low  Cost 


WE  ILLUSTRATE  IN  THIS   BOOK  the 

perspective  view  and  floor  plans  of  41  Mod- 
ern Residences.  In  drawing  these  plans 
special  effort  has  been  made  to  provide  for 
the  most  economical  construction,  thereby 
giving  the  home  builder  and  contractor  the 
benefit  of  the  saving  of  many  dollars. 

$200.00  PLANS  FOE  ONLY  $20.00— This 
department  has  for  its  foundation  the  best 
equipped  architectural  establishment  ever 
maintained  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the 
public  with  complete  working  plans  and 
specifications  at  the  remarkable  low  price  of 
only  $10.00  to  $30.00  per  set.  Every  plan  we 
illustrate  has  been  designed  by  a  licensed 
architect,  who  stands  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession in  this  particular  class  of  work. 

WHAT  WE  GIVE  YOU— The  first  ques- 
tion you  will  ask  is,  "What  do  we  get  in 
these  complete  working  plans  and  specifica- 
tions? Of  what  do  they  consist?  Are  they 
the  cheap  printed  plans  on  tissue  paper  with- 
out details  or  specifications?"  We  do  not 
blame  you  for  wishing  to  know  what  you 
will  get  for  your  money. 

BLUE  FEINTED  WOEKING  PLANS— 
The  plans  we  send  out  are  the  regular  blue 
printed  plans,  drawn  one-quarter  inch  scale 
to  the  foot,  showing  all  the  elevations,  floor 
plans  and  necessary  interior  details.  We  use 
the  very  best  grade  of  blue-printing  paper; 
every  line  and  figure  showing  perfect  and 
distinct. 

FOUNDATION  AND  CELLAE  PLANS— 
This  sheet  shows  the  shape  and  size  of  all 
the  walls,  piers,  footings,  posts,  etc.,  and  of 
what  materials  they  are  constructed;  shows 
the  location  of  all  windows,  doors,  chimneys, 
ash-pits,  partitions,  and  the  like.  The  differ- 
ent wall  sections  are  given,  showing  their 
construction  and  measurements  from  all  the 
different  points. 

FLOOE  PLANS— These  plans  show  the 
shape  and  size  of  all  rooms,  halls  and  closets; 
the  location  and  size  of  all  doors  and  win- 


dows; the  position  of  all  plumbing  fixtures, 
gas  lights,  registers,  pantry  work,  etc.,  and 
all  the  measurements  that  are  necessary  are 
given. 

ELEVATIONS— A  front,  right,  left  and 
rear  elevation  are  furnished  with  all  the 
plans.  These  drawings  are  complete  and  ac- 
curate in  every  respect.  They  show  the 
shape,  size  and  location  of  all  doors,  windows, 
porches,  cornices,  towers,  bays,  and  the  like; 
in  fact,  give  you  an  exact  scale  picture  of 
the  house  as  it  should  be  at  completion.  Full 
wall  sections  are  given,  showing  the  construc- 
tion from  foundation  to  roof,  the  height  of 
stories  between  the  joists,  height  of  plates, 
pitch  of  roof,  etc. 

EOOF  PLAN— This  plan  is  furnished 
where  the  roof  construction  is  at  all  in- 
tricate. It  shows  the  location  of  all  hips, 
valleys,  ridges,  decks,  etc.  All  the  above 
drawings  are  made  to  scale  one-quarter  inch 
to  the  foot. 

DETAILS — All  necessary  details  of  the 
interior  work,  such  as  door  and  window  cas- 
ings and  trim,  base,  stools,  picture  moulding, 
doors,  newel  posts,  balusters,  rails,  etc.,  ac- 
company each  set  of  plans.  Part  is  shown 
in  full  size,  while  some  of  the  larger  work, 
such  as  stair  construction,  is  drawn  to  a 
scale  of  one  and  one-half  inch  to  the  foot. 

SPECIFICATIONS— The  specifications  are 
typewritten  on  Lakeside  Bond  Linen  paper. 
They  consist  of  twenty-two  pages  of  closely 
typewritten  matter,  giving  full  instructions 
for  carrying  out  the  work.  All  necessary  di- 
rections are  given  in  the  clearest  and  most 
explicit  manner,  so  that  there  can  be  no 
possibility  of  a  misunderstanding. 

BASIS  OF  CONTEACT— The  working 
plans  and  specifications  we  furnish  can  be 
made  the  basis  of  contract  between  the  home 
builder  and  the  contractor.  This  will  pre- 
vent mistakes,  which  cost  money,  and  they 
will  prevent  disputes  which  are  unforeseen 
and  never  settled  satisfactorily  to  both  par- 


85 


ties.  When  no  plans  are  used  the  contractor 
is  often  obliged  to  do  some  work  he  did  not 
figure  on,  and  the  home  builder  does  not  get 
as  much  for  his  money  as  he  expected,  simply 
because  there  was  no  basis  on  which  to  work 
and  upon  which  to  base  the  contract. 

NO  MISUNDERSTANDING  CAN  ARISE 
when  a  set  of  our  plans  and  specifications  is 
before  the  contractor  and  the  home  builder, 
showing  the  interior  and  exterior  construc- 
tion of  the  house  as  agreed  upon  in  the  con- 
tract. Many  advantages  may  be  claimed  for 
the  complete  plans  and  specifications.  They 
are  time  savers,  and,  therefore,  money  savers. 
Workmen  will  not  have  to  wait  for  instruc- 
tions when  a  set  of  plans  is  left  on  the  job. 
They  will  prevent  mistakes  in  cutting  lum- 
ber, in  placing  door  and  window  frames,  and 
in  many  other  places  where  the  contractor  is 
not  on  the  work  and  the  men  have  received 
only  partial  or  indefinite  instructions.  They 
also  give  instructions  for  the  working  of  all 
material  to  the  best  advantage. 

OUR  LIBERAL  PRICES— Many  have 
marveled  at  our  ability  to  furnish  such  ex- 
cellent and  complete  working  plans  and 
specifications  at  such  low  prices.  We  do  not 
wonder  at  this,  because  we  charge  but  $10.00 
to  $30.00  for  a  more  complete  set  of  work- 
ing plans  and  specifications  than  you  would 
receive  if  ordered  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
and  when  drawn  especially  for  you,  at  a  cost 
of  from  $75.00  to  $200.00.  On  account  of 
our  large  business  and  unusual  equipment, 
and  owing  to  the  fact  that  we  divide  the 
cost  of  these  plans  among  so  many,  it  is  pos- 
sible  for  us  to  sell  them  at  these  low  prices. 
The  -margin  of  profit  is  very  small,  but  it 
enables  us  to  sell  thousands  of  sets  of  plans, 
which  save  many  times  their  cost  to  both 
the  owner  and  the  contractor  in  erecting 
even  the  smallest  dwelling. 

OUR  GUARANTEE— Perhaps  there  are 
many  who  feel  that  they  are  running  some 


risk  in  ordering  plans  at  a  distance.  We 
wish  to  assure  our  customers  that  there  is  no 
risk  whatever.  If,  upon  receipt  of  these 
plans,  you  do  not  find  them  exactly  as  rep- 
resented, if  you  do  not  find  them  complete 
and  accurate  in  every  respect,  if  you  do  not 
find  them  as  well  prepared  as  those  furnished 
by  any  architect  in  the  country,  or  any  that 
you  have  ever  seen,  we  will  refund  your 
money  upon  the  return  of  the  plans  from 
you  in  perfect  condition.  All  of  our  plans 
are  prepared  by  architects  standing  at  the 
head  of  their  profession,  and  the  standard 
of  their  work  is  the  very  highest.  We  could 
not  afford  to  make  this  guarantee  if  we  were 
not  positive  that  we  were  furnishing  the 
best  plans  put  out  in  this  country,  even 
though  our  price  is  not  more  than  one-sev- 
enth to  one-tenth  of  the  price  usually 
charged. 

ESTIMATED  COST— It  is  impossible  for 
anyone  to  estimate  the  cost  of  a  building 
and  have  the  figures  hold  good  in  all  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  We  do  not  claim  to 
be  able  to  do  it.  The  estimated  cost  of  the 
houses  we  illustrate  is  based  on  the  most 
favorable  conditions  in  all  respects,  and  in- 
cludes everything  but  the  plumbing  and 
heating.  We  are  not  familiar  with  your 
local  conditions,  and,  should  we  claim  to 
know  the  exact  cost  of  a  building  in  your 
locality,  a  child  would  know  that  our  state- 
ment was  false.  We  leave  this  matter  in  the 
hands  of  the  reliable  contractors,  for  they, 
and  they  alone,  know  your  local  conditions. 

IMMEDIATE  DELIVERY  GUARAN- 
TEED— Our  equipment  and  facilities  are 
such  that  we  can  send  out  the  same  day  we 
receive  order  the  complete  plans  and  speci- 
fications for  any  house  we  illustrate.  De- 
livery is  made  by  express  whenever  possi- 
ble, otherwise  plans  and  specifications  are 
forwarded  by  mail. 


THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 


178  W.  JACKSON  BOUL. 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


86 


IT  SHOWS  YOU  HOW 

To  Accomplish  More — How  to  Make  More — How  to  Save 
Money,  Time  and  Labor — How  You  Can  Equip  Yourself  For 

Better  Building  and  Bigger  Contracts 

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"the  World's  Greatest  Building  Paper,"  is  a  wise  investment  for  any  Contractor, 
Builder,  Carpenter  or  Woodworker — an  investment  that  will  return  remarkable 
dividends  of  reliable,  practical  information — that  will  give  full  value  in  every  number. 

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Endorsed  Af\  f\f\f\  Well-pleased 
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Not  only  are  the  time-tried  and  approved  methods  of  construction  shown,  but  also 
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DETAILS 

of  Building  Construction 

Radford's  Portfolio  of  "Details  of  Build- 
ing Construction"  is  a  complete  manual  of 
building  practice,  as  applied  to  carpentry, 
construction  and  the  use  of  millwork.  It 
is  a  remarkable  collection  of  full-page 
plates,  accurately  drawn  and  reproduced 
to  exact  scale,  showing  clearly  every  detail 
of  modern  building  construction  and  finish. 
These  plates  make  plain  the  framing  and 
construction  of  residences  of  every  type. 
The  drawings  show  both  the  arrangement 
of  the  room  and  all  the  interior  trim,  includ- 
ing built-in  features,  fully  detailed. 

General  Synopsis  of  Contents 

PART    I.      Details    of    Construction    and    Finish 

38  Full  Page  Plates,  showing  complete  detai!s 
of  interior  trim  with  special  "built-in"  features 
for  every  room  and  part  of  a  modern  residence. 


PART    II. 


Details   of   Frame  and    Masonry 
Construction 


44  Full  Page  Plates,  presenting  a  graded  series 
of  197  figures  detailing  completely  every  point  in 
frame,  brick  and  stone  construction. 

PART    III.      Details    of    Miscellaneous    Building 

57  Full  Page  Plates — A  veritable  Treasure 
House  of  practical  and  reliable  information 
for  carpenters  and  builders — especially  those 
working  in  the  country — working  drawings  and 
details  which  solve  completely  every  building 
problem. 


200    Pages — 9x12    inches 


PART    IV.      "The    Handy   Man's   Friend" 

How    to    Make    a    Thousand    and    One    Useful 

Things 

61  Pages,  packed  full  of  practical  helps  for 
doing  all  the  various  pieces  of  work  that  the 
carpenter  and  the  "handy-man-about-the- 
house"  is  called  upon  to  do.  Details  and  work- 
ing drawings  with  brief  explanatory  text. 

A  Big,  Brand-New  Up-to-the-Minute  Book 

Every  part  eft  a  building^  and  every  kind  of  a  building  is  shown  in  Radford's 
Portfolio  of  "Details  of  Building  Construction."  All  dimensions,  angles,  curves, 
measurements  and  joints  are  made  so  plain  and  are  so  well  illustrated  that  the  "man 
on  the  job"  will  have  no  trouble  or  difficulty  in  doing  the  work.  It  has  all  been 
figured  out  for  him  by  men  who  have  made  a  lifelong  study  and  success  of  architecture 
and  building.  This  is  the  day  of  "built  in"  space-  and  labor-saving  features  in  the  home. 
Carpenters  are  called  upon  to  plan  and  build  buffets  and  sideboards  for  the  dining 
room,  kitchen  cabinets,  cases  and  cupboards  for  the  kitchen  and  pantry,  bookcases 
for  the  living  room  and  library,  wardrobes  and  linen  closets  for  the  chambers,  fire- 
places with  wood  mantels,  window  seats,  etc.  Radford's  Portfolio  of  "Details  of  Build- 
ing Construction"  is  a  regular  gold  mine  of  new  and  attractive  designs  and  practical 
ideas  from  which  the  carpenter  or  the  architect  or  the  builder  can  draw  for  all  or 
any  of  these.  In  every  case  complete  details  are  presented — all  accurately  drawn  to 
scale — so  that  the  work  can  be  gotten  out  directly  from  the  Portfolio,  if  need  be, 
without  redrawing. 

Two  Hundred  Pages  of  Illustrations 

Each  plate  and  drawing  is  accompanied  by  descriptive  text,  pointing  out  the  special 
features  and  making  every  part  perfectly  clear  and  easily  understood. 

Bound  in  cloth  with  handsome  illuminated  cover.     Price,  postpaid,  $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


BUNGALOW 

208  Brand-New  Designs 


RADfORES 


This  handsomely  bound  book, 
size  8x11  inches,  224  pages,  con- 
tains perspective  views  and  floor 
plans  of  208  Bungalows  suitable  for 
any  climate  and  for  every  material. 
The  illustrations  show  the  Bunga- 
lows exactly  as  they  will  appear 
when  built  and  the  floor  plans  show 
the  size  and  arrangement  of  the 
rooms,  windows,  closets,  plumbing 
and  interior  details.  The  estimated 
cost  of  construction  of  the  Bunga- 
lows shown  ranges  from  $500.00  to 
$5,000.00  each. 

Best  Ideas  in  Bungalow  Archi- 
tecture 

In  this  big  book  is  condensed  the 
best  thought  on  Bungalow  construc- 
tion. The  home  builder  and  con- 
tractor will  find  here  every  style  of 
Bungalow  that  has  proved  itself 
worthy  of  being  classed  with  that 
form  of  architecture.  Freak  ideas 
that  serve  no  good  purpose,  but  are 
an  item  of  large  expense,  have  been  carefully  excluded  from  this  collection. 

Largest  Bungalow  Book  Ever  Published 

"Artistic  Bungalows"  is  the  largest  and  most  complete  work  of  its  kind 
ever  published.  In  its  208  Bungalow  designs  are  many  that  will  appeal  to 
every  taste.  Economy  of  construction,  as  well  as  beauty  and  harmony  of 
design,  has  been  carefully  kept  in  mind.  Convenience  of  interior  arrange- 
ment, light,  and  closet  room  have  all  been  considered. 

Plans  Are  Guaranteed  to  Be  Correct 

The  plans  for  every  Bungalow  shown  in  this  book  were  drawn  by 
licensed  architects,  men  who  have  made  a  life  study  of  home  construction 
and  who  know  the  economy  of  planning  buildings  that  allow  of  the  use  of 
the  standard  sizes  of  lumber  and  material. 

Wide  Range  of  Style  and  Materials 

Every  floor  plan  shown  in  this  large  collection  is  guaranteed  to  be  abso- 
lutely correct  from  an  architectural  standpoint.  "Pet  ideas"  that  involve 
needless  expense,  waste,  or  possibility  of  mistake  have  not  been  considered. 

Bound    in   cloth,    with    handsome    illuminated   cover.     Price,    postpaid,    $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


FRAMING 


House    Framing,    Barn 
Framing,  Roof  Framing 

"Framing"  is  the  largest  book  of 
its  kind  ever  published.  It  consists 
of.  356  pages,  size  6x9  inches,  and 
printed  from  large,  clear  type  on  a 
high-grade  book  paper.  More  than 
100  pages  of  illustrated  details  make 
it  most  valuable. 

This  large  new  book,  "Framing," 
is  written  so  that  any  reader  can 
understand  every  page,  every  term 
used  and  every  detail  shown.  It  is 
entirely  free  from  technicalities,  and 
yet  its  pages  are  meaty  with  instruc- 
tions to  all  classes  of  builders,  from 
the  youngest  apprentice  to  the 
journeyman,  as  well  as  the  practical 
builder  _and  the  largest  contractor. 

Practical  information  is  the  key- 
note of  "Framing."  By  practical,  we 
mean  information  that  can  be  suc- 
cessfully applied  to  the  everyday 
work  of  the  average  carpenter, 
builder  and  contractor,  as  well  as  the 
more  intricate  forms  of  framing  that 
come  less  often,  but  about  which  it 
is  necessary  to  be  fully  posted.  The 
book  presents  problems  as  they  have 
been  worked  out  by  well-known 
architects  and  the  man  on  the  job. 


General  Synopsis  of  Contents 


Part  I.     Framing  for  all  Types  of  Houses 

Chapter  1.    Ordinary  Frame  Houses — Fram- 
ing complete,  from  foundation  to  roof 
Chapter  2.     Roof  Framing  Simplified 
Chapter  3.     Stair  Building  Simplified 
Chapter  4.     Cement  Plastered  and  English 

Half-Timber  Houses 
Chapter  5.     Wood  Framing  for  brick  veneer 

houses 
Chapter  6.    Wood   Framing   for  stone  and 

brick  houses 
Part   II.     Barn   Framing  Complete 

Chapter  1.    Heavy  Timber  Barns 
Chapter  2.     Plank  Framing 
Chapter  3.    Balloon  or  Self-Supporting  Con- 
struction 


and 


in 


Part    III.      Framing    of    Factories,    Stores 

Public  Buildings 
Chapter  1.     Mill  Construction 
Chapter  2.     Wood  Trusses  of  all  kinds 
Chapter  3.     Architectural    Framing    as 

churches,  gymnasiums,  halls,  etc. 
Part    IV.      Miscellaneous    Framing 

Chapter  1.     Scaffolding  and  Shoring 
Chapter  2.     Wooden  Bridges 
Chapter  3.     False  Work  for  Concrete 
Part  V.     Useful  Tables  and  Data 
Part  VI.     Dictionary  of  Terms  and  Index 

All  terms  used  in  framing,  building  con- 
struction and  architecture  defined  and 
explained,  with  cross  reference  to  full 
discussion  in  body  of  book 


A  Big,  Practical,  Up-to-the-Minute  Book  for  the  Architect,  Drafts- 
man, Construction  Man,  Contractor,  Builder  and  Carpenter 

Bound  in   cloth,   with   handsome    illuminated    cover.      Price,    postpaid,   $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


BRICK  HOUSES 

And  How  to  Build  Them 

This  book  is  a  complete  and 
clear  manual  of  brick  construction, 
designs  and  details.  It  tells  what 
every  builder  should  know  of  the 
classification  and  measurements  of 
brickwork,  together  with  archi- 
tects' drawings  of  framing  for  brick 
houses  and  the  use  of  brick  veneer. 

Up-to-Date  and  Approved 
Methods 

This  book  also  tells  of  the  mis- 
cellaneous uses  of  brick,  including 
ornamental  brick  and  tile  work, 
chimney  and  flue  construction, 
brick  fireplaces,  brick  sewers,  cis- 
terns and  flush  tanks,  etc.  It  tells 
the  carpenter  and  builder  every- 
thing he  should  know  to  undertake 
brickwork  and  how  to  make  a  suc- 
cess of  every  job  in  which  brick  is 
used.  It  is  so  clearly  illustrated 
by  details  that  there  can  be  no  un- 
certainty in  any  builder's  mind  as 
to  each  successive  step  to  be  taken. 

Money-Maker  and  Business-Getter  for  Builders 

This  book  will  be  a  money-maker  and  business-getter  for  builders.  Brick  houses 
are  in  demand.  Many  thousands  of  dollars  are  being  spent  by  brick  manufacturers 
in  advertising  so  as  to  create  a  demand  for  their  product.  This  has  stimulated  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  those  intending  to  build  to  insist  upon  brick  instead  of  other 
materials.  Every  builder  should  learn  all  he  can  about  the  many  varieties  of  brick 
and  the  multitude  of  ways  it  can  bemused  in  order  to  meet  this  demand.  In  addition 
to  designs  of  many  beautiful,  ^attractive,  medium  priced  houses  this  book  also  contains 
fully  worked-out  detail  drawings,  as  well  as  prices  and  estimating  data. 

Beautiful  Designs  Shown 

Over  sixty  designs  of  the  very  best  modern  architectural  work  are  presented  in 
this  book.  These  designs  are  of  attractive,  substantial,  homelike  brick  houses  of 
many  types — designs  that  will  appeal  to  home  lovers  and  the  man  or  woman  who  is 
investing  the  savings  of  a  lifetime  in  a  home.  This  book  will  give  any  builder  all 
the  information  he  needs  to  figure  on  a  job  and  then  carry  it  out  in  the  most  ap- 
proved manner.  In  all  sections  of  the  country  the  demand  for  brick  houses  is  grow- 
ing. Builders  are  finding  out  they  must  post  up  on  brick  construction.  They  are 
being  asked  its  cost,  durability,  economy  and  hundreds  of  similar  questions.  They 
can  find  the  answers  by  studying  the  pages  of  this  book. 

Size  8  xir  inches,  236  pages.  Bound  in  cloth  with  handsome  art  cover.  Price, 
postpaid,  $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


AND  HOW  TO  BUILD    THEM 


STEEL  SQUARE    And  its  Uses 

"Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses," 
by  Wm.  A.  Radford,  consists 
of  two  volumes  and  are  brand 
new  books.  They  are  written 
in  plain,  everyday  language 
and  the  text  and  illustrations 
can  be  easily  understood  and 
followed.  Information  of  value 
that  has  appeared  in  former 
works  appears  in  these  books, 
together  with  a  vast  amount  of 
absolutely  new,  practical,  every- 
day information,  such  as  is  nec- 
essary for  every  progressive 
and  successful  carpenter  to 
know. 

Vast  Amount  of  Prac- 
tical Information 

This  up-to-date  and  practical 
work  on  the  application  of  the 
steel  square  treats  of  the  laying 
of  the  rafters,  finding  the 
length  of  jacks,  securing  bevels, 
laying  out  hopper  bevels,  show- 
ing how  to  use  the  steel  square 
as  a  calculating  machine,  and 
how  to  measure  solids,  surfaces 
and  distances.  While  the  text 
and  descriptive  matter  are  so 
accurate  and  easy  of  compre- 
hension that  they  could  be 
understood  without  even  the  assistance  of  the  illustrations,  nevertheless  the  book  has 
been  thoroughly  and  profusely  illustrated  with  diagrams  and  drawings. 

Over  300  Illustrations 

Practical  and  instructive  illustrations  to  the  number  of  more  than  300  are  shown 
in  these  books.  The  illustrations  are  not  technical,  mathematical  designs  nor 
geometrical  problems,  but  are  the  thoroughly  practical  illustrations  of  a  thoroughly 
practical  text. 

Special  Chapters  on  Stair  Building 

Special  chapters  are  devoted  to  that  part  of  stair  building  to  which  the  steel 
square  can  be  applied.  Other  chapters  discuss  the  adjustable  fence,  roof  framing, 
hip  roof  framing,  hoppers  and  hopper  bevels,  combination  squares,  key  to  the  steel 
square,  possibilities  of  the  steel  square,  polygons  and  miters,  pitches  and  roof  framing 
aiid  miscellaneous  rules  and  examples. 

A  Department  of  Questions  and  Answers 

easily  understood  answers.  These  questions 
come  up  in  every  carpenter's  work  frequently 
and  the  solutions  of  the  problems  given  will 
prove  a  valuable  aid  to  the  readers  of  "Steel 
Square  and  Its  Uses." 


Incorporated  in  "Volume  2  is  one  of  the  most 
useful,  interesting  and  instructive  departments 
ever  presented  in  a  work  of  this  character.  It 
consists  of  numerous  questions  which  have 
been  sent  the  editors  by  practical  carpenters 
all  over  the  country,  together  with  clear  and 


Books  Are  Absolutely  Up-to-Date 


These  books  are  absolutely  new  and  up-to- 
date.  Each  volume  measures  6x9  inches  and 
contains  over  300  pages,  being  the  largest 


books  on  the  steel  square  ever  published. 
They  are  bound  in  cloth,  with  attractive  cover 
designs,  handsomely  stamped. 


Price  per  volume,  postage  prepaid,  $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


CEMENT  HOUSES 


And  How  to  Build  Them 


RADFORD'S 

CEMENT 
HOUSES 


In  "Cement  Houses  and  How  to 
Build  Them,"  a  book  of  160  pages, 
all  types  and  designs  of  houses  are 
shown,  ranging  in  price  from  $750 
to  $4,000.  The  plans  were  all  drawn 
by  licensed  architects  and  are  guar- 
anteed to  be  absolutely  correct  in 
every  detail. 

This  Large  Book  Contains 

Illustrated  Details  of  Cement  Construc- 
tion; Standard  Specifications  for  Ce- 
ment; Standard  Specifications  for  Con- 
crete Blocks;  Valuable  Information  Con- 
cerning Waterproofing,  Coloring,  Ag- 
gregates, Proportioning,  Mixing,  Paving, 
Reinforcing  and  Monolithic  Work, 
Foundations,  Walls,  Partitions,  Steps, 
Stairs,  Floors,  Sidewalks,  Sewer  Pipe, 
Tile,  Cement  Shingles,  Chimneys, 
Porches,  Tanks  and  Cisterns,  Expanded 
Metal  Meshing,  Metal  Lath,  Establish- 
ing a  Concrete  Block  Business,  Cement, 
Plaster  and  Stucco  Work;  Concrete  on 
the  Farm;  Cement  Brick;  How  to  Over- 
come Concrete  Troubles;  Causes  of 
Cement  Failures;  Freezing;  How  to 

Select  Proper  Aggregates;  Applying  Stucco  to  Old  Walls;  Examples  of  Strength; 
Tension  and  Compression;  Placing  Reinforcing  Rods;  Adhesion;  Dimensions  for 
Beams;  Vibrations;  Miscellaneous  Information  of  Every  Kind. 

176  pages,  size  8x11.    Over  200  illustrations,  with  perspective  views  and  floor 

plans  of  eighty-seven  cement  plaster  and  concrete  block  houses, 

finest  ever  designed 

All  houses  illustrated  with  fine  half-tone  cuts,  printed  on  enameled  paper.  The 
illustrations  show  the  houses  exactly  as  they  will  look  when  built,  and  give  a  very 
clear  idea  of  their  appearance.  All  the  floor  plans  are  shown,  giving  the  location  and 
dimensions  of  all  rooms,  closets,  porches,  etc.,  with  detailed  information  as  to  both 
interior  and  exterior.  The  houses  illustrated  range  from  the  small  to  the  medium 
large  in  size,  such  as  will  appeal  to  the  average  man  or  woman  who  intends  to  build 
a  home. 

Keep  Posted  on  New  Developments 

In  these  days  of  timber  and  cement  houses,  brick  and  cement  houses,  and  other 
combinations  of  materials,  the  builder  and  contractor  who  wants  to  be  ready  to  do 
work  on  all  kinds  of  residence  construction  should  study  the  latest  methods  and  most 
practical  and  economical  ways  of  doing  his  work.  He  should  be  prepared  to  accept 
contracts  on  any  type  of  construction,  be  able  to  estimate  accurately  and  understand 
all  details.  New  and  odd  ways  of  combining  frame,  stucco,  concrete  blocks  and 
veneered  brick  are  constantly  being  employed,  and  the  builder  who  does  not  have 
the  advantage  of  practical  experience  on  this  unusual  work  is  under  a  serious  handicap. 

Bound   in    cloth,   with   handsome    illuminated    cover.     Price,    postpaid,   $1.00. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


Stores  and  Flat  Buildings 


RADFORD'S 
STORES  CHAT 
BUILDINGS 


This  book  is  entirely  different  from 
any  book  of  Architectural  Plans  ever 
published,  as  it  is  composed  of  perspec- 
tive views  and  plans  designed  both  for 
city  and  country  buildings.  Nothing  like 
it  has  ever  before  been  within  the  reach 
of  any  one  desiring  to  build  for  himself 
or  others. 

Only  Book  of  Its  Kind 
"Stores  and  Flat  Buildings"  is  actually 
the  first  and  only  book  of  its  kind  ever 
published.  In  other  plan  books  designs 
are  shown  for  single  residences  to  be 
constructed  on  separate  lots,  but  in  this 
book  are  given  ideas  for  the  man  who 
wants  to  have  his  store  on  the  first  floor 
and  live  above  it.  or  rent  the  upper  floor 
or  floors.  These  designs  combine  busi- 
ness and  residence  structures,  and  also 
give  the 

Latest  Ideas  and  Designs 
in  Flat  Buildings  of  two,  four,  six  and 
mne  apartments.  In  nearly  all  good 
sized  towns  and  villages  small  flat  build- 
ings, combined  with  stores  or  entirely 
for  residence  purposes,  are  becoming 
more  and  more  popular,  and  are  prov- 
ing very  popular.  In  the  suburbs  of 
large  cities  small  flats  or  apartments 
are  being  built  more  than  any  other  tyoe 
of  construction, 
apartments  and  rents  the  others,  thus , 


The   owner  usually   lives   in   one   of   the 
helping  him  to  take  care  of  his  investment. 

For  Country  and  City 

In  addition  to  the  designs  for  stores,  combined  stores  and  flat  buildings  and 
separate  flat  buildings,  this  book  also  illustrates  small  bank  buildings,  lodge  halls 
and  double  houses  suitable  for  the  small  towns  and  villages  as  well  as  the  larger 
cities.  In  many  small  towns  there  is  a  demand  for  suitable  places  of  gathering  for 
societies  and  lodges,  and  in  numerous  cases  the  contractor  and  builder,  having  had 
no  experience  in  this  line  of  work,  believes  it  necessary  to  apply  to  an  architect  in  a 
larger  place  to  get  correct  plans  drawn  especially  to  order.  The  contractor  and 
builder,  with  this  book  on  hand,  can  take  care  of  this  work  himself  and  secure 
correct  and  guaranteed  plans  at  a  trifling  cost,  plans  that  have  been  built  from  and 
found  satisfactory  in  every  particular.  The  same  is  true  of  bank  buildings,  of  which 
a  good  selection  is  shown. 

An  Up-to-Date  Book  for  Builders 

This  book  shows  many  popular  designs  of  the  kind  of  building  shown  by  its 
title,  suitable  for  different  building  materials,  such  as  frame,  brick,  stone,  cement, 
plaster  and  stucco,  and  cement  block.  An  estimate  of  cost,  based  on  favorable  con- 
ditions, is  shown  under  each  design.  An  expert  knowledge  of  the  material  that  goes 
into  buildings  of  this  character  is  back  of  every  design  shown. 

"Radford's  Stores  and  Flat  Buildings"  is  printed  on  high-grade  super-calendered 
paper  from  artistic  half-tones  and  etchings.  It  is  bound  in  silk  cloth,  with  an  illumi- 
nated cover.  Price,  postpaid,  $1.00  per  copy. 

THE  RADFORD  ARCHITECTURAL  CO. 

178  West  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago  178  Fulton  St.,  New  York 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


AUG  0  9  1993 
RECEIVED 

OCT  1  2  1993 
EMS  LIBRARY 


315 


oooJJI^ 


A     000  650  358     5 


y\  cc 


Sc 

I 


